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<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Zhang Ling 张玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> <br /> 政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> <br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> <br /> 他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：&quot;年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道&quot;。<br /> <br /> &quot;情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（&quot;云和雨的游戏&quot;），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=119314 2020-12-27T12:30:11Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music). <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=119313 2020-12-27T12:29:35Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music). <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118591 2020-12-21T13:48:39Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.(Chen Wangdao 1932) <br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.(Guo Shaoyu 1925)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;.(Bai Qiming 1924) He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). ''英汉对比研究''.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究.[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as  《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;.Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.<br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. <br /> <br /> There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke快克&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma彪马), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke派克), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken林肯), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou飘柔&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai金利来&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. (2012).汉英商标名称的翻译及其文化内涵. [Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation. 2(17) 68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. 段文颇,郭茹.(2012). 商标翻译中的“三美”再现及其翻译方法探析. [Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods]. 创新创业理论研究与实践 [Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice]. 1(14) 110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang.(2012). 论商标名称的翻译. [An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang.(2018).文化差异视角下的商标名称翻译研究. [Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. 刘海燕. (2013). 英文商标名称汉译技巧探析. [Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names]. 英语广场 [English Square] (Academic Research). (09) 8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. (2018).跨文化交际视角下的汉英商标名称翻译研究. [Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. 王恒恩. (2009). &quot;三美&quot;论与商标翻译分析. [&quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis]. 成功(教育) [Success (Education)]. (03) 274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. (2018).汉英商标翻译研究. [The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu.(2018). 从目的论角度研究品牌名称的英译. [Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. 张瑾. (2019). 中英商标名翻译的原则与方法. [Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names]. 校园英语 [Campus English]. (10) 225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. 张文斐. (2020). 再议三美论下的商标翻译策略. [Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory]. 校园英语 [Campus English].(30)249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi. 李健子. (2018.7.11). 中国译名也能圈粉！make up for ever的“浮生若梦”引热议. [Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion]. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei. 奥美. (2017.5.2). 为什么好文案月薪10万理所应当，看看这些绝妙翻译. [Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations]. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). [&quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese]. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118459 2020-12-21T13:03:26Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 4.Conclusion */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). ''英汉对比研究''.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究.[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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(2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as  《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;.Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.<br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. <br /> <br /> There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke快克&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma彪马), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke派克), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken林肯), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou飘柔&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai金利来&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118441 2020-12-21T12:57:12Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.1 Transliteration */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). ''英汉对比研究''.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究.[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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(2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as  《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;.Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.<br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. <br /> <br /> There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke快克&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma彪马), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke派克), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken林肯), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou飘柔&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai金利来&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118431 2020-12-21T12:55:02Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.The methods of brand name translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). ''英汉对比研究''.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究.[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as  《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;.Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.<br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. <br /> <br /> There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke快克&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Baiwei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma彪马), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke派克), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken林肯), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou飘柔&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai金利来&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118361 2020-12-21T12:23:50Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 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(2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. 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(2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. <br /> <br /> There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118351 2020-12-21T12:20:47Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). ''英汉对比研究''.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究.[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. 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(2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118294 2020-12-21T12:00:22Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 1. Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. 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(2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118256 2020-12-21T11:49:03Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 摘要 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118245 2020-12-21T11:46:54Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that &quot;one (head)&quot; in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while &quot;one (head)&quot; was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot;. For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)<br /> <br /> Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example, <br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example， <br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,<br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84) <br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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(2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118075 2020-12-21T10:43:14Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 摘要 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118070 2020-12-21T10:41:27Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=118065 2020-12-21T10:38:41Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> <br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called &quot;Qiaopihua&quot;, &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Jiehouyu&quot;, &quot;Xinueyu&quot;(witticism),&quot;Suojiaoyu&quot;(abbreviation),&quot;Yingzhuyu&quot;(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as &quot;Miyu&quot;(riddle) and &quot;Yanyu&quot;(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehou&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated &quot;Chinese Xiehouyu&quot; into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called &quot;Qiaopihua (witticism)&quot;, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> ……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: <br /> 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. <br /> Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.<br /> I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)<br /> <br /> Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)<br /> <br /> The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)<br /> <br /> Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)<br /> <br /> What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）<br /> <br /> In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）<br /> <br /> Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> <br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)<br /> <br /> For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> <br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. <br /> <br /> I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. <br /> <br /> This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> <br /> *He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> *Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> *Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.<br /> <br /> *Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> *Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.<br /> <br /> *Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 &amp; 129.<br /> <br /> *Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> *Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> *Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> *He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> *Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8&diff=117967 2020-12-21T09:31:44Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* History of Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''History of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu 英美文学==<br /> &lt;center&gt;王煜，202020080645.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and broken through the language barrier. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Although there are many differences of the translation histories between the Western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between Western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Translation History of the West; Translation History of China; Comparative Study<br /> <br /> ===中西翻译史对比研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> No matter in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society. <br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the design of curriculum of Chinese and Western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including ''A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works.(Xie Tianzhen2009,Ⅴ) <br /> <br /> The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===<br /> <br /> Western translation activities are rich in a long history. The history of Western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times===<br /> <br /> The translation history of Western countries first began in the the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.(Tan Zaixi2000,88-89) <br /> <br /> At the end of the 4th BC, Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So it soon began a large scale translation activities. The activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping2009,8) <br /> <br /> At that time, many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. It started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===<br /> <br /> The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was concerned about religion. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west, Christianity strived to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of the Christianism naturally meant a lot in religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)<br /> <br /> &quot;Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===<br /> <br /> This period can also be called &quot;the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement&quot;,(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. <br /> <br /> Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi2000, 90) <br /> <br /> Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category' are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European nation states. <br /> <br /> Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. <br /> <br /> In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping2009,9)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation, it marked the status of national language in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated. Simultaneously, it showed that translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought.(Liu Junping2009,9)<br /> <br /> During the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Tan Zaixi2000,91)<br /> <br /> ===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===<br /> <br /> Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory. The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. <br /> <br /> With the growth in number or quantity of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation, and with the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, having made tremendous progress, the translation scale has exceeded the past.(Tan Zaixi2000,92)<br /> <br /> There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the West, who have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The Western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi2000, 92)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Translation History of China===<br /> <br /> China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. &quot;The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history.&quot;(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.<br /> <br /> ===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> <br /> The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the ''Forty-Two Chapters Sutra'' is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,17)<br /> <br /> It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks,(Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' language knowledge , they usually used literal translation. <br /> <br /> The second period was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way but still translated literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. <br /> <br /> Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi1998,55) <br /> <br /> The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, but he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains significant today. <br /> <br /> As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi1998,82)<br /> <br /> As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, the translation of Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra has contributed more than a lot.  The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West.(Ma Zuyi1998,263) <br /> <br /> Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the ''Four Books'' into Latin, he was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi1998,263) <br /> <br /> From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the &quot;new learning&quot; period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty. He made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoting the development of science in China.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===<br /> <br /> After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of western natural science. Under the influence of the thought of reform, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi1998,329）<br /> <br /> After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations, His translation promoted the development of &quot;new learning&quot; and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time.（Ma Zuyi1998,377）<br /> <br /> Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.（Ma Zuyi1998,384）<br /> <br /> ===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===<br /> <br /> The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement. <br /> <br /> During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.<br /> <br /> ===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===<br /> <br /> The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. <br /> <br /> Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translations like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, translation of United Nations documents after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu He puts forward his &quot;transmigration theory (化境说)&quot; for literary translation. It is like the act of transmigration in which the soul, the spirit of the original text remain in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous &quot;cultural revolution,&quot; China adopted its &quot;reform and open&quot; policy. A new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===<br /> <br /> ===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===<br /> <br /> About the religious and translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and Western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religion to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of society.<br /> <br /> The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of Tthe German language and the establishment of modern German. <br /> <br /> What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. In the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of &quot;New Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese. <br /> <br /> The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kind of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. <br /> <br /> Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations.(Tan Zaixi1999,26)<br /> <br /> ===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===<br /> <br /> First, time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is due to the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another, especially when people in the remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for a destination. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations. There would be a delay in communication and connection. <br /> <br /> As for the West, there are numerous plains, so, it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activities.<br /> <br /> Also, the position of religion varies. The different tradition and culture of the West and China make the concept of religion of the two quite varied. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, in order to consolidate his ruling position, the rulers controlled the people spiritually. The doctrine of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.<br /> <br /> The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences of them is between the single system and poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.”(Tan Zaixi2000,15) <br /> <br /> In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the West is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi2000,15)<br /> <br /> The concept of Chinese and Western translation is different. Meanwhile, the translation theory in China and the west varies. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practicality than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory.(Tan Zaixi2000,16) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept fewer challenges. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the West, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theory, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.<br /> <br /> Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.<br /> *Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.<br /> *Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司. <br /> *Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.<br /> *Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.<br /> *Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words ===<br /> color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods<br /> <br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。<br /> <br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 颜色词 文化差异 原因 翻译方法<br /> <br /> === 1.Introduction ===<br /> <br /> Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors. <br /> <br /> Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.<br /> <br /> === 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===<br /> <br /> Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.<br /> In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65) <br /> <br /> (1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are &quot;white&quot;, &quot;black&quot;, &quot;red&quot;, &quot;yellow&quot;, &quot;blue &quot;&quot;Green&quot; &quot;Gray&quot; &quot;Purple&quot; &quot;Brown&quot; and &quot;orange&quot;.<br /> (2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide &quot;green&quot; into &quot;dark green&quot; &quot;grass green&quot; and so on.<br /> (3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)<br /> <br /> Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.<br /> basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.<br /> Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)<br /> <br /> === 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===<br /> Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things.(Wang Yu2012,151) <br /> <br /> Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral.(Du Tianyu2020,188) In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 红and Red ====<br /> <br /> In traditional Chinese culture, &quot;红&quot; represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. &quot;红&quot; is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word &quot;红&quot; generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)<br /> <br /> In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, &quot;red hands&quot;, &quot;red battle&quot;, &quot;the red rules&quot; &quot; red revenge&quot;, the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in &quot;red activities&quot;, but also danger and tension,such as &quot;a red flag&quot;. &quot;red alert&quot; &quot;a red adventure story&quot;,in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 黑 and Black ====<br /> <br /> In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc. (Wang Yu2012,150)<br /> <br /> In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means &quot;bad news&quot;，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a &quot;dangerous and ominous day&quot;. Black also symbolizes &quot;anger&quot; and &quot;irritation&quot;, such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term &quot;black-ball&quot; refers to a costume ball. In business English, &quot;a company in black&quot; refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 白 and White ====<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White&quot; also means &quot;pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. &quot;White&quot; also often means &quot;in vain&quot; or &quot;without cost&quot;, such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425) <br /> <br /> and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word &quot;white&quot;, which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.(Yan Wen2012,176)<br /> In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.<br /> <br /> ====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====<br /> <br /> In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with &quot;honor&quot;, &quot;brilliance&quot;, it is a symbol of &quot;power&quot; and &quot;nobility&quot;. To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc.(Yan Wen2012,178)<br /> <br /> but in the West, the term &quot;the blue video&quot;, &quot;the blue talk&quot; is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, &quot;yellow&quot; has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) For example, &quot;a yellow streak&quot; means cowardice. &quot;yellow&quot; also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper. <br /> <br /> As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, &quot;yellow journalism&quot; is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. In English, Yellow Pages is the &quot;yellow phone book&quot;, and yellow boy is a slang term for &quot;gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 绿and Green ====<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a &quot;lvmao&quot; （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.<br /> <br /> <br /> In traditional British culture, &quot;Green&quot; is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The &quot;Green Peace Organization&quot; is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, &quot;green winter&quot; refers to a warm winter, and &quot;in a green wood&quot; refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means &quot;money,&quot; &quot;bills,&quot; or &quot;economic power&quot; in the United States.<br /> <br /> ====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====<br /> <br /> Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color. <br /> For example, “蓝 青 官 话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent、“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model<br /> “蓝图”（blue print）building plan、“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family、“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .(Chen Yuan2020,49)<br /> <br /> But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)<br /> <br /> === 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===<br /> <br /> Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems, <br />  <br /> ====4.1 Geographic Factors ====<br /> <br /> Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.<br />  <br /> ==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====<br /> <br /> A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132) <br /> <br /> In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for &quot;throne&quot; and &quot;prominence,&quot; and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes,(Li Dan2018,132) such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple. <br /> <br /> In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The &quot;黄&quot; in these names has nothing to do with the English &quot;yellow&quot;, these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. (Chen Yongye2005,425)It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.<br /> <br /> ==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====<br /> <br /> In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since &quot;gold&quot; is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to &quot;the Gospels&quot; in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well.<br /> <br /> Therefore, people think that &quot;red&quot; is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and &quot;red&quot; makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾 满 血 的 手 ),“ a red battle”( 血 战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头).&quot;(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红 榜 ”honor roll,“ 红 运 ”goodluck,“ 红 事 ”wedding,“ 红 人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.&quot;.<br /> <br /> ==== 4.4 Social System ====<br /> <br /> The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term &quot;红&quot; to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book &quot;Red Star Over China&quot;(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)<br /> <br /> ===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===<br /> <br /> From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.<br />  <br /> ====5.1 Literal Translation ====<br /> <br /> Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)<br /> <br /> For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)、<br /> black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)、black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,152) <br /> <br /> Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, &quot;white dew&quot; is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as &quot;白露&quot; in China. As another example, &quot;绿油油&quot; is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153) We can translate it into English as &quot;green and shiny&quot; because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== 5.2 Free Translation ====<br /> <br /> Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called &quot;free translation&quot;.(Chen Yuan2020,49）<br /> <br /> Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say &quot;他是老师面前的“红人&quot;, which is translated into English as &quot;He is teacher's favourite student&quot; ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others,(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,150) and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as &quot;red people&quot;. <br /> <br /> In English, the meaning of &quot;one's favourite people&quot; is somewhat similar to &quot;红人&quot;, so the phrase &quot;one's favorite people&quot; is appropriate. Another example is &quot;a white elephant,&quot; which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of &quot;白象&quot; would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as &quot;expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)<br /> <br /> When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate.(Bao Dongjiao2005,106) With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually.<br /> <br /> However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference ===<br /> <br /> *Cai Xiaomin.蔡晓敏.( 2020).中英颜色词的对比与翻译研究[A comparative study of Chinese and English color words and their translation].海外英语[Overseas English],65-66.<br /> <br /> *Yan Wen.颜雯.(2012).翻译中颜色词的中西文化内涵差异[The difference between Chinese and Western cultural connotations of color words in translation].青年文学家·语言研究,[ Young Literati-Language Studies],177.<br /> <br /> *Jin Yan.金燕.(2012).浅析颜色词在中西文化下的翻译对比差异[An analysis of the contrasting differences in the translation of color words in Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fenyan.赵芬艳.(2019).试论中西颜色词的文化内涵及翻译策略[The cultural connotation of Chinese and Western color words and translation strategies].师资校企经验[Faculty school-enterprise experience],232-234.<br /> <br /> *Wang Yan, Zhang Bo.王艳,张博.(2012).谈中西文化对颜色的理解差异[Talking about the difference in the understanding of color between Chinese and Western cultures].教学实践[Teaching Practice],6-11.<br /> <br /> *Chen Yongye.陈永烨.(2005).英汉颜色词所表现的中西文化差异[The Chinese and Western cultural differences expressed by English and Chinese color words].辽宁工程技术大学学报[Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology],424-427.<br /> <br /> *Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun.胡宗康,张军.(2019).英汉颜色词中“Green/绿”的对比与翻译方法研究[. Comparison and Translation of &quot;Green/绿&quot; in English and Chinese Color Words].文学教育[Literary Education],152-153.<br /> <br /> *Bao Dongjiao.鲍冬娇.(2015).中西红白颜色认知差异及翻译取向[Differences between Chinese and Western red and white color perception and translation orientation].湖北经济学院学报[Journal of Hubei University of Economics],106-107.<br /> <br /> *Li Dan.李丹.(2018).中西文化差异下的颜色词翻译[Translation of color words under the difference of Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> *Li Hong.李虹.(2020).汉英颜色词翻译的差异性研究[A study of the differences between Chinese-English color word translations].文化长廊[Cultural Promenade].<br /> <br /> *Liu Mengqi, Chen Xingxing.刘梦琪,陈星星.(2020).浅谈颜色词的翻译[A brief discussion on the translation of color words].校园英语翻译研究[Campus English Translation Study].<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu,杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[An analysis of the influence of cultural differences on the translation of Chinese-English color words].科教文汇[Science and Education],187-188.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yanping.许雁萍.(2009).中西文化中颜色词语的差异及其翻译[The Difference of Color Words in Chinese and Western Culture and Their Translation].文学语言学研究[Literary Linguistics Research],212-213.<br /> <br /> *Wang Yu.王羽.(2012).中西文化对比下颜色词的差异比较[Comparison of the differences in color words between Chinese and Western cultures].教育时空[Education Time],151.<br /> <br /> *Li Yun, Jia Aiguang.李云,贾爱光.(2020).大学英语教学中英汉基本颜色词翻译对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion on the Translation of English and Chinese Basic Color Words in University English Teaching].校园英语[Campus English],11-21.<br /> <br /> *Chen Yuan陈缘.(2020)英汉颜色词的文化差异与翻译[Cultural differences between English and Chinese color words and translation].海外英语[Overseas English],48-49.<br /> <br /> ==Translation manipulated by ideology 许静 Xu Jing, 202070080614 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, &quot;fidelity&quot;. This article will explore the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding from a historical perspective, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, &quot;fidelity&quot;. This article will explore from a historical perspective the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the &quot;faithful&quot; concept. Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that &quot;translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions.&quot; In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. in the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere suggested that in Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame) the Manipulation of Literary Fame), argues that translation takes into account several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology.<br /> <br /> Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the &quot;faithful&quot; concept. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that &quot;translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions.&quot; In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere suggested that in Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame) the Manipulation of Literary Fame), argues that translation takes into account several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ideology===<br /> The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept. <br /> <br /> The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:<br /> <br /> But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form.<br /> <br /> Mkerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines: <br /> <br /> 1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda. <br /> <br /> The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed.<br /> ===Ideology and Translation===<br /> Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful. <br /> <br /> Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were doubly condemned without being told; and the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems, one by one, Pound. The crime: infidelity. Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity' of Yan Fu and others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were condemned with few sensible reasons; and Pound, the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems. The crimeexerted on them is infidelity. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity'.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal and external. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. &quot;The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics' (Lefevere, 1992a: 14-15). Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics. <br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal factors and external factors. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. &quot;The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics' (Lefevere, 1992a: 14-15). Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator' (op. cit: 48).<br /> <br /> Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator' (op. cit: 48).--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere is, in my view, logically debatable. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process.<br /> <br /> The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere is, in my view, some debatable points. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the author's view, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those &quot;beautiful women&quot; who have &quot;lost their modesty&quot;. Of course, the task of defending &quot;them&quot; is now left to our descendants.Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies.<br /> <br /> In my understanding, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those &quot;beautiful women&quot; who have &quot;lost their modesty&quot;. Of course, the task of defending &quot;them&quot; is now left to our descendants.Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own value judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to &quot;pluck out the nose and cut the eyes&quot; or to start a new one.<br /> <br /> Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to &quot;pluck out the nose and cut the eyes&quot; or to start a new one.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, or to lose the order to translate, or to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of &quot;Journey to the West&quot;, we are all &quot;translators&quot;, so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful.<br /> <br /> Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, sometimes either to lose the rules to translate, or even to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of &quot;Journey to the West&quot;, we are all &quot;translators&quot;, so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:<br /> <br /> What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (See Lefevere, 1992a: 15)<br /> <br /> What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (See Lefevere, 1992a: 15)--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, it means &quot;those who obey me will prosper, those who disobey me will perish&quot;. Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological &quot;parameters&quot; of the American power class.<br /> <br /> In short, it means &quot;those who obey me will prosper, those who disobey me will perish&quot;. Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological &quot;parameters&quot; of the American power class.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, &quot;exchange&quot; is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise.<br /> <br /> Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, &quot;exchange&quot; is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like in taijiquan, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see &quot;literary&quot; and &quot;qualitative&quot; translations, &quot;direct&quot; and &quot;meaningful&quot; translations &quot;, &quot;naturalization&quot; and '&quot;dissimilation&quot;, and the way of &quot;the middle&quot; (Huiyuan, 1984: 41), which strives for impartiality.<br /> <br /> Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like in taijiquan, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see &quot;literary&quot; and &quot;qualitative&quot; translations, &quot;direct&quot; and &quot;meaningful&quot; translations &quot;, &quot;naturalization&quot; and '&quot;dissimilation&quot;, and the way of &quot;the middle&quot; (Huiyuan, 1984: 41), which strives for impartiality.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology.<br /> <br /> Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the &quot;opening chapter of translation theory&quot; in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Dawan, 1984:24)&quot;<br /> <br /> Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the &quot;opening chapter of translation theory&quot; in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Dawan, 1984:24)&quot;--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology (Lefevere, 1992b: 15), but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:<br /> <br /> Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology (Lefevere, 1992b: 15), but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance.&quot; (op. cit: 18)<br /> <br /> When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance.&quot; (op. cit: 18)--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue.<br /> <br /> Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===<br /> After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of &quot;falling on one side&quot;, &quot;starting a new cooker&quot; and &quot;cleaning up the house before inviting guests &quot;From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons.<br /> <br /> After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of &quot;falling on one side&quot;, &quot;starting a new cooker&quot; and &quot;cleaning up the house before inviting guests &quot;From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====<br /> Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the &quot;other&quot; into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology. <br /> <br /> Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the &quot;other&quot; into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: &quot;'Go the way of the Russians', politically. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity.&quot; Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation.[8] <br /> <br /> <br /> The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: &quot;'Go the way of the Russians', politically. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity.&quot; Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation.[8] --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. [8] <br /> <br /> However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. [8] --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union. <br /> The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner. <br /> <br /> Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union. <br /> The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China.<br /> <br /> Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China.<br /> <br /> From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House. <br /> <br /> In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes. <br /> <br /> Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society. <br /> <br /> In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China.<br /> <br /> According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained.<br /> <br /> In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Patron manipulation of translation activities====<br /> The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose. <br /> <br /> The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology.<br /> <br /> Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases.<br /> <br /> The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons.<br /> <br /> The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that &quot;it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work.<br /> <br /> The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that &quot;it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will.<br /> <br /> The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As Yang Xian Yi said, &quot;Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment.&quot; [13]<br /> IV. Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC<br /> The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences. Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews.<br /> <br /> As Yang Xian Yi said, &quot;Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment.&quot; [13]--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> IV. Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC<br /> The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences. Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. [8] And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of &quot;Star&quot;' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of &quot;Star&quot;', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation.<br /> <br /> After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. [8] And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of &quot;Star&quot;' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of &quot;Star&quot;', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. [14] Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations.<br /> <br /> Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. [14] Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities.<br /> <br /> In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. [1 In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable.<br /> <br /> Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. [1 In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.<br /> <br /> Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference books===<br /> *许宝强，袁伟．语言与翻译的政治[C]．北京:中央编译出社，2001:1-20.<br /> <br /> *吕俊．翻译研究:从文本理论到权利话语[J]．四川外语学院学报，2002，1 (18): 106-109.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, S &amp; Ledever, A. Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 48.<br /> <br /> *Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2010: 127-129.<br /> <br /> *Lefevere, A. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010: 1-70.<br /> <br /> *王东风. 一只看不见的手——论意识形态对翻译实践的操纵 [J]．中国翻译，2003，5 (24): 16-23.<br /> <br /> *周扬. 社会主义现实主义——中国文学前进的道路 [N].人民日报，1953-01-11 (1).<br /> <br /> *文记东. 1949~1966年的中苏文化交流[M]，哈尔滨:黑龙江大学出版社，2011: 101, 144.<br /> <br /> *马祖毅．中国翻译通史现当代部分（第三卷）[M].武汉﹔湖北教育出版社，2006: 207-225.<br /> <br /> *人民出版社马列著作编辑室．马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作中文本书目（1950~1983年）[Z]. 北京：人民出版社，1985.<br /> <br /> *周东元，亓文公．中国外文局五十年史料选编（1）[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 399.<br /> <br /> *新星出版社编辑部．中国外文局五十年回忆录[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 37, 420-421.<br /> <br /> *杨宪益，薛鸿时．漏船载酒译当年[M]. 北京:人民日报出版社，2001: 225.<br /> <br /> *杜萌．翻译市场滥译滥编侵权现状调查[N]. 法制日报，2009-03-02 (8).<br /> <br /> *中国翻译协会．中国翻译年鉴﹔2009~2010年[M]. 北京:外文出版社，2011: 241, 232.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in my country or Western countries, the long tradition of translation has become the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization.In addition, translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication.This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.<br /> <br /> Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This paper first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自历史记载以来,就存在翻译.翻译与人类的历史并道而驰,甚至先于历史记载.无论在我国,还是西方国家,悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。<br /> <br /> 自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, Chinese translation studies have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Ma Zuyi's A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China, and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars. The four climaxes in Chinese translation history promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society in varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)<br /> <br /> Like China, western translation has a long history. In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should be attributed to the translators. The five climaxes in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and promoted the development of Chinese translation to a certain extent. In fact, when we examine the development of translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts in China and the West together, we find that there are some similarities between them. Especially in the evolution of Chinese and western translation concepts, they have very similar evolution rules.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===<br /> According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.And these translation stages have had varying degrees of impact on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)<br /> <br /> In the traditional sense, there have been four translation climaxes in China's long history of translation development, leaving many classic comments. From the four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theory and practice in different periods in China. Moreover, these translation climaxes have exerted different influences on the history, culture, society and literature of China, including the development of Chinese translation itself.(Li 2016,132)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The first stage: Ancient Translation History====<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, and it is also the first large-scale, planned and organized translation activity in Chinese history.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)<br /> <br /> From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous &quot;five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties&quot;, which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）<br /> <br /> Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous &quot;five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties&quot;, which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous &quot;Five do not flip&quot;(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. &quot;Five do not flip&quot;means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)<br /> The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）<br /> <br /> In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous &quot;Five do not flip&quot;(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. &quot;Five do not flip&quot;means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)<br /> The Buddhist translation in this period enriched the people's religious beliefs, became the spiritual support of the people at the bottom, promoted the communication between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist classics an integral part of Chinese traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====<br /> During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (middle 14th to 19th centuries), there was a second stage of translation in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major shift was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）<br /> <br /> During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (from the middle of the 14th century to the 19th century), the second climax of translation appeared in Chinese history. This major turn was also decided by the agreement reached by the Chinese and Western countries at that time in order to seek their own interests. Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thoughts and culture in China. At that time, Chinese people with lofty ideals were eager for knowledge and were keen on western advanced science and technology in order to maintain political power.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this way, the two needs complement each other, and the translation of Western scientific books is increasing. Increased, which promoted the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the &quot;Father of Western Translation&quot;, does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to narratives and co-translation and compilation.(Liu 2016,148)<br /> <br /> In this way, the mutual complementation of the two needs led to the gradual formation of the atmosphere of translation of Western science books, thus promoting the great development of science and technology translation at that time. In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the translation office, translated books by western translation and Chinese translation, that is, foreign scholars interpret, and Chinese scholars write and polish. During this period, the main representatives of translation activities were Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao. Xu Guangqi, in particular, is known as &quot;the father of translation of Western learning&quot;. He does not understand foreign languages. His translation is mainly made by listening to people's dictation, co-translation and compilation with others.(Liu 2016,148)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He proposed that the translation of Western history books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: &quot;If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must first translate.&quot;Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)<br /> <br /> He put forward that the translation of western historical books should be prioritized and step by step. And put forward his own translation thought: &quot;if you want to surpass, you must be able to understand; before you can feel pain, you must translate first.&quot; Although there are many translation achievements in this period, there is no systematic translation theory. Although there were clear translation principles in the later period, their main purpose was to maintain their rule by learning advanced western technology.(Liu 2016,148)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====<br /> From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil and internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist ideas demanded to unite to resist the aggression of Western countries, and proposed reforms to strengthen themselves.Translation in this period is the boundary of modern Chinese translation history. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation. The scale and influence of its translation activities all surpassed any period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）<br /> <br /> From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil, internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist thoughts demanded to unite to resist the invasion of western countries and proposed to strengthen through reform. Translation in this period is a watershed in the history of modern translation in China. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation, and the scale and influence of its translation activities have surpassed any other period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by &quot;national anxiety&quot;, which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's &quot;faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance&quot; translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities.&quot;faithfulness&quot; means loyalty, and &quot;expressiveness&quot; means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, &quot;elegance&quot; means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.<br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong and Yan Fu was a translation behavior driven by the sense of national anxiety, which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchange. In particular, Yan Fu's translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance has a profound impact on translators' translation activities. &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot; in Yan Fu's interpretation refer to &quot;using the pre Han Chinese grammar and syntax&quot;. At that time, Lin Shu was also a representative translator. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, that is to say, the target and effect of translation should be achieved.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When Lin Shu is translating, he emphasizes on subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original work.A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent.During the May 4th Movement, the &quot;New Youth&quot; magazine was launched and began to translate western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representatives such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适）, and Zhou Zuoren （周作人）all attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)<br /> <br /> In his translation, Lin Shu emphasizes the involvement of subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original works. A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent. During the May 4th movement, New Youth magazine began to translate and introduce western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representative figures such as Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi and Zhou Zuoren attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)<br /> <br /> The translation activities in this period, both the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge, and the dissemination of advanced ideas, show its important position in the history of translation. Moreover, the audience in this period also expanded from intellectuals to some people, broadened the vision of Chinese people, increased their insight, and played a good catalytic role in the modern ideological circle.(Liu 2016,149)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====<br /> Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.<br /> <br /> Since the Reform and Opening up, China and the western world have a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development. From the beginning of learning from modern and contemporary western translation theories to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and paying attention to interdisciplinary comprehensive innovation, China has made unprecedented progress in translation practice and theory. For example, cultural schools, structuralism, postcolonialism and other translation theories have been translated into China, and literary works involve various fields such as politics, economy, culture, literature, art and so on.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book &quot;A Brief History of Western Translation&quot;. The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)<br /> <br /> The representative figures at this time include Liu Miqing, Tan Zaixi, Huang Long, etc. among them, Tan Zaixi compiled a brief history of western translation. The book absorbed the relevant research results at home and abroad, narrated and commented on the representative tasks, translated works and schools of thought in the field of western translation in various historical periods, especially since the 20th century, and the mutual relationship between translation practice and translation theory The process of promotion, evolution and development has been analyzed and discussed in simple terms, which has promoted the formation of systematic translation theories in China to a certain extent.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> In this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practice skills and translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective ideas to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes. Translation studies have changed from a single paradigm in the past to a multi paradigm study nowadays. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding the research field, and effectively promoting the development of China's translation research.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===<br /> The same as our country, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic &quot;Odyssey&quot; translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)<br /> <br /> Like China, western translation has a long history. In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should be attributed to the translators. From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European community, literary, artistic, scientific and trade exchanges between countries were carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of western translation can be divided into five stages. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Greek translation of the Old Testament by seventy people; strictly speaking, the first translation is Homer's epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in Latin. Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC and has a history of more than 2000 years. It is an important part of the whole European development history.(Tan 1985,36)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====<br /> Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the &quot;The Bible. Old Testament&quot; from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)<br /> <br /> Ancient translation mainly revolves around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the Old Testament from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation. At the end of the fourth century B.C., the powerful Greek slave society began to decline, while the less developed Rome gradually became stronger. At this time, Greece had a certain cultural foundation and was still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation and introduction of Greek culture may begin in this period.It was only in the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)<br /> <br /> The introduction of Greek culture may have begun in this period. It was not until the middle of the third century B.C. that translation of written records began to appear. Andronicus, Nevius and enius, known as the three great originators of Roman literature, and other excellent translators have translated a large number of Greek drama works in Latin. This large-scale translation first opened up the situation of European local translation. It introduced Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and played an important role in the inheritance of ancient Greek literature by Rome and later generations of Europe.(Tan 1985,36)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation activities in the fourth to sixth centuries AD were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the &quot;Bible&quot; has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called &quot;The New Testament&quot;, which marked that the translation of the &quot;Bible&quot; had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages one after another.（Tan 2004,79）<br /> <br /> The translation activities from the fourth century to the sixth century were mainly religious in nature. In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop religious culture serving its own interests. As the source and spiritual weapon of Christianity, the Bible has naturally become the most concerned classic in religious circles. In 384 A.D., Jerome, entrusted by the Pope, compiled a translation of the New Testament, that is, the universal Bible. This indicates that the translation of the Bible has achieved the same important status as the translation of secular literature. As Europe entered the feudal society, religious translation got more market, and the Bible was translated into various languages.（Tan 2004,79）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====<br /> In the Middle Ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Eastern literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a &quot;Translation Museum&quot; similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.<br /> <br /> In the middle ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Oriental literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arab academic research promoted the development of western translation. At that time, western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is a rare friendly contact between Christians and Muslims in history. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into ancient Syrian and brought them back to Bagdad. Bagdad became an important translation center, and many Greek classics were translated into Arabic. Later, in the 11th century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic and Translation Center, and became a &quot;Translation Institute&quot; similar to Bagdad. Its translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years and had a great influence.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====<br /> In the 14-16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)<br /> <br /> From the 14th to the 16th century, the Renaissance movement took place in Europe. It was a great movement of Ideological and literary innovation and a great development in the history of western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, western translators constantly found new literary fields, excavated new cultural heritages and transplanted new ideas to their native land. At this time, translation went deep into the ideological, political, philosophical, literary, religious and other fields, involving some of the main works of ancient, modern and contemporary. Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, which marked the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the &quot;Bible&quot; through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, &quot;Celebrity biography&quot; translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)<br /> <br /> In Germany, Martin Luther King pioneered the religious reform. He translated the Bible through the people's language, which laid the foundation for the standardization and standardization of German, and played an important role in the unification of German. In France, the famous man translated by amio became an immortal literary translation in French and even the whole western translation history The translation of the history and literary works of Greece and Rome provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of autocratic monarchy in Britain, contributed to the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and made Britain earlier embark on the road of modern nationalization.(Tan 1985,37)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> All in all, the ideological liberation movement of the Renaissance in Europe around 1500 had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially Western European society, and cultural translation played a crucial role as a bridge in this ideological liberation movement. It also shows that translation plays a huge role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)<br /> <br /> In a word, the Renaissance around 1500 AD had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially the Western European society. Cultural translation played an important role in the ideological liberation movement. At the same time, it also showed that translation played an important role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals. <br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace. The economy was restored, production was guaranteed, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are the important material basis for the development and progress of translation. Compared with the past, translation in the new era has changed a lot. First of all, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation in this period expanded to the fields of science and technology and commerce. Secondly, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few senior intellectuals.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there are even professional teams with special training. Moreover, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has been accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays an important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The form of translation during this period has also undergone great changes, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development. It is a challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is also a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)<br /> <br /> During this period, the forms of translation also changed greatly, such as the enhancement of the degree of specialization in translation, the establishment of higher translation education and the cultivation of professional translators. In particular, the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized. Since the British and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have gradually shown their vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous process. It is not only a challenge to the traditional manual translation for thousands of years, but also a revolution with far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> ====4.1 Commonality====<br /> Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.<br /> First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)<br /> <br /> Through the introduction of the history of Chinese translation and that of western translation in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the two in terms of translation concepts and the evolution process, especially the evolution laws of Chinese and western translation concepts are very similar.<br /> First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale translation activities in China and the West are closely related to the translation of religious documents. In the west, it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as &quot;original supremacy&quot; and &quot;faithful original text&quot; that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)<br /> <br /> In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of the two thousand year old translation concepts of &quot;the original is supreme&quot; and &quot;faithful to the original&quot;. Looking back on history, when translators in ancient China and the West translated these religious documents, they must have a kind of piety and absolute loyalty to the original text to translate word for word, for fear of distorting God's will and Buddha's teachings. Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has changed from religious literature and literary masterpieces to non literary practical literature, such as economy, science and technology, commerce, entertainment, etc. The focus of translation has changed from the original text to the reader.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the &quot;Translation Museum&quot; in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)<br /> <br /> Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the &quot;Translation Museum&quot; in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)<br /> <br /> It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the &quot;May 4th&quot; period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)<br /> <br /> In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the &quot;May 4th&quot; period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Third, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages in various countries has some obvious commonalities in both the West and China.In the West, Martin Luther's Bible translation has played a very important role in the unification and development of German and modern German.The English translation of the &quot;Bible&quot; also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and expressive means.As for China, Buddhist translation has enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May Fourth Movement, which promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular.The translation in the new era has also enriched the vocabulary to a certain extent.For example, the Chinese &quot;人山人海&quot; translates into English as &quot;people mountain people sea&quot;, and it is even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages of different countries has some obvious similarities in the West and China. In the west, Martin Luther's Bible translation plays a very important role in the unification and development of German as well as modern German. The English translation of the Bible also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and means of expression. As for China, Buddhist translation enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May 4th movement, and promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular. And now the new era of translation, to a certain extent, has enriched the vocabulary. For example, the Chinese word &quot;人山人海&quot; is translated into English as &quot;people mountain people sea&quot;, even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation also plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.<br /> <br /> Finally, both Chinese and western, translation plays an important role in transmitting foreign social and cultural values. In the west, for example, during the Renaissance, the excavation, dissemination and development of humanistic spirit benefited greatly from the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics. In China, Li Zhizao and Xu Guangqi's translation of western social science masterpieces at the end of Ming and early Qing Dynasty broadened the horizon of Chinese people and promoted the process of China's modernization. In addition, the translation of Western literature and drama works by Yan Fu and Lu Xun during the May 4th Movement refreshed the Chinese people's world outlook, increased the Chinese people's insight, and played a good catalytic role in the modern ideological circle.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Difference====<br /> The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.<br /> Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)<br /> <br /> In the last section, the author expounds that the evolution of Chinese and western translation history is very similar from four aspects. Of course, the development of Chinese and western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and node, but also in some aspects it is quite different.<br /> Although the initiation and development of large-scale translation activities in China and the West are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and western social and political life is different. Religion plays an important role in western society.(Xie 2009,51)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of &quot;Bible&quot; translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)<br /> <br /> In the Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and human beings, but also the maker and arbiter of the political and ethical order of the world. The Bible is the primary source of western moral standards. Therefore, the importance of Bible translation can be imagined. In China, the imperial power is greater than the divine power. The monarch claims to be the son of heaven and exercises power according to the mandate of heaven and enjoys supreme authority. Religion can be spread and developed only when it is supported and utilized by the imperial power. Its essence is the tool to maintain the rule and has never become a religious act of the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the &quot;Chinese Etiquette Controversy&quot; in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to do harm to the ethics of feudal rule. Once it did, it would be banned and eliminated. The &quot;three martial arts and one sect&quot; in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the &quot;Chinese etiquette dispute&quot; in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features. Therefore, the influence of Buddhist Scripture Translation in China exists more in folk culture, and its influence is more embodied in a subtle form, such as the change of world outlook, the infiltration of language, the borrowing of Buddhist Classic public viewing plot in literary works and so on. Moreover, Chinese society takes blood relationship as the link and family as the unit. It is blood relationship that closely connects family members. Festivals, weddings and funerals are always carried out in family or family units, rather than under the auspices of the church in the West.(Xie 2010,6)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the west, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation and ethics, focusing on whether translation theory has practical effect, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the process of translation. The Western Christian culture has formed a sharp contrast with China's Confucianism in this respect. They are more thoughtful and systematic in their thinking and systematic in translation.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6) <br /> <br /> They think that the key point is to describe what kind of theory exists behind the practice of translation, and how to understand translation and explain translation from the perspective of theory. This makes the development path of the two translation theories different. If there are still many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of translation activities between China and the west before the 1950s, the differences in the development trend of translation theories between the two countries will be more and more obvious in the later stage, especially from the end of the 19th century: the western translation theories have realized systematization earlier.(Xie 2010,6)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)<br /> <br /> Any research is carried out under the guidance of certain theories, and the achievements of relevant disciplines are fully utilized to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly diversified, which reflects the strong spirit of scientism. However, for a long time, Chinese translation theory has remained at the level of translation practice experience and perception, which makes subjective feelings to a great extent. In particular, the advocates of traditional translation theories pay attention to the artistic conception of &quot;everything in silence&quot; and give people more space for association and comprehension, but they can not make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ⅴ.conclusion===<br /> It is precisely based on the above-mentioned understanding of the history of Chinese and Western translation from different aspects that &quot;similarities have differences, and differences have similarities&quot;, so I think that the history of Chinese and Western translation development should be described, analyzed and sorted in the same framework. It is possible.In this way, we can not only emphasize the common ground in the development of Chinese and Western translation, find the rules among them, but also show the uniqueness of the development of the two.<br /> <br /> Based on the above understanding of the history of Chinese and western translation from different aspects, I think it is possible to describe, analyze and sort out the history of Chinese and western translation in the same framework. By doing so, we can not only emphasize the common points in the development of Chinese and western translation, but also find out the rules of them. At the same time, we can show their own uniqueness in the process of development.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.<br /> <br /> This paper adopts the method of synchronic parallel narration and diachronic combing to combine the two seemingly unrelated development threads of Chinese and western translation history as a whole, analyzes and describes the development stages of Chinese and western translation history according to the mainstream translation objects in specific times, and explores and reveals them It shows the internal law of the evolution of Chinese and western translation concepts.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable. Whether religious, political or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture. In the process of understanding the history of Chinese and western translation, people also feel the cultural collision. Not only in the long history of the past, but also in today's 21st century, translation is a bridge and link between countries and an indispensable existence in people's social, political and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we can not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is also an art.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.<br /> <br /> Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Chinese and western language, literature, philosophy, religion and other forms of cultural exchange, not only need artistic expression, but also need rigorous academic attitude and systematic theory to support. Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of translation academic theories and skills from different perspectives, which has promoted the progress and development of society.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Chen Fang 陈芳.(2016).西方翻译史的文化演进——评《西方翻译简史》[The Cultural Evolution of Western Translation History——A Review of &quot;A short history of translation in the West&quot;].当代教育学(06)Contemporary Education(2).<br /> <br /> Gong Yicai 龚亿财.(2020).论翻译在第三次翻译高潮中的特点及社会功能[On the features and social functions of translation in the third translation climax].吉林广播电视大学学报(Total No.217)Journal of Jilin Radio and TV University.<br /> <br /> Li Yin 李颖.(2016).从翻译史上的几个重要时期看中国翻译理论与实践的发展[Viewing the development of Chinese translation theory and practice from several important periods in the history of translation].湖北经济学院学报(Vol13 No.10)Journal of Hubei University of Economics.<br /> <br /> Liu Qiaoling 刘巧玲.(2016).从中国翻译史的四次高潮看主要译论及读者影响[Main translation theories and readers' influence from the four climaxes of Chinese translation history].黑龙江生态工程职业学院学报(Vol.29 No.5)Journal of Heilongjiang Vocational Institute of Ecological Engineering.<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[On the history of Western translation].中国翻译(07)Chinese Translation(36-39).<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史[A short history of translation in the West].商务印书馆The Commercial Press of Hongkong.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧.(2018.06)改革开放以来中国翻译研究的发展之路[The development of Chinese translation studies since reform and opening up].Chinese Traslation Journal.<br /> <br /> Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2009)中西翻译简史[A brief history of Chinese and Western translation].外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2010)中西翻译史整体观探索[An exploration of the holistic view of Chinese and Western translation history].东方翻译(02)East Journal of Translation(4-8).<br /> <br /> ='''Literal and Free Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.<br /> <br /> === Key Words===<br /> <br /> Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 直译与意译，归化与异化<br /> <br /> === 摘 要 ===<br /> <br /> 直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 直译；意译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===0. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term &quot;literal translation&quot; used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the &quot;Six Examples of Scripture Translation&quot; recorded in &quot;Song Gaoseng Biography&quot;, it can be seen that the concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; in traditional translation theories was first opposed to &quot;retranslation&quot; , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely &quot;word-for-word translation&quot;, &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;inter lineal translation&quot;. In this way, there is a fundamental difference between &quot;literal translation&quot; as the concept of &quot;implantation&quot; and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term &quot;literal translation&quot;.<br /> <br /> In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.<br /> <br /> ===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===<br /> <br /> ===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of etymology, &quot;method&quot; refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds.&quot; Similar to the &quot;method&quot; in Chinese, the &quot;method&quot; in English is derived from the Greek word &quot;μ＇εθοδοζ&quot;, which consists of two words &quot;along&quot; and &quot;road&quot;, meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is &quot;method&quot; in Chinese or &quot;method&quot; in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on &quot;action&quot;. Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching &quot;On Two Methods of Translation&quot;, &quot;Bring the author to the reader&quot; and &quot;Bring the reader to the author&quot; are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.<br /> <br /> British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the &quot;Translation Tutorial&quot;, among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with &quot;equivalence&quot;, and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, &quot;the translation method is related to the entire text&quot; (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.<br /> <br /> Western translation theorist Steiner believes-&quot;The ideal situation for translation is to not suffer any loss during conversion&quot; (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the &quot;degree&quot; between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the &quot;most natural and most appropriate&quot; translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of &quot;literal translation and free translation, which is better?&quot; from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of &quot;how to translate&quot;, but also involves the question of &quot;what is the ideal state of translation&quot;.<br /> <br /> In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of etymology, strategy means &quot;strategy and strategy&quot; in Chinese. Like the word &quot;strategy&quot; in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as &quot;a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving.&quot; The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of &quot;translation strategy&quot; under the term &quot;translation strategy&quot;(Bassnett, 2004). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-&quot;When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies.&quot; (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.<br /> It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.<br /> <br /> ===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is &quot;assimilation, alienation&quot;, and the second pair is &quot;domestication, foreignization&quot;.<br /> <br /> The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as &quot;different traditional individuals or groups&quot;, and try to make them &quot;participate&quot; in the target language and culture during translation. &quot;Participate&quot; here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The &quot;language&quot; mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. &quot;Culture&quot; refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel &quot;unfamiliar&quot; when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.<br /> <br /> The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called &quot;fluency tendency&quot; that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese &quot;domestication&quot; also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of &quot;domestication&quot; in domestication is not included in &quot;domestication&quot;; and &quot;foreignization&quot; in Chinese also maintains the &quot;different&quot; component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. &quot;Naturalization&quot; and &quot;alienation&quot; are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;foreignization&quot; in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, &quot;domestication&quot; was used in translation research earlier than &quot;foreignization&quot;.<br /> <br /> Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the &quot;stranger&quot; of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.<br /> <br /> ===3. Rethink===<br /> <br /> The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. &quot;Modern Chinese Dictionary&quot;says that &quot;methods&quot; are &quot;methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc.&quot;and &quot;strategies&quot; are &quot;action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation.&quot; Method.” There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called &quot;naturalization&quot;, according to the interpretation of &quot;Cihai&quot;, &quot;is the old name of naturalization&quot;. The &quot;domestication&quot; of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest &quot;ji&quot; is incorporated into the &quot;ji&quot; of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of &quot;Ning Shun but not believing&quot; in the translation circle, and the translation of &quot;Nation&quot; is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).<br /> <br /> According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of &quot;abstraction method&quot;; 4. Abuse of &quot;substitution method&quot;; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will &quot;reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. &quot;.<br /> <br /> Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs.The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language.<br /> <br /> Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture&quot;. (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is &quot;a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home&quot;,Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized, that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)<br /> <br /> Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept &quot;paraphrase&quot;; also known as &quot;assimilative translation&quot; (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.<br /> <br /> The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text.Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those &quot;aggressive&quot; monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in &quot;current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality.&quot; The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism&quot;. (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land. He said: &quot;Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.”Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation &quot;is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off.&quot; (Venuti, 1995:34)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ［1］Bassnett，Susan．Translation Studies(3rd ed)［M］．Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2004．<br /> ［2］Newmark，Peter．The Textbook of Translation［M］．Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2001．<br /> ［3］Robinson，D.Translation and Empire:Posteolonial Theories Explained［M］.Manchester:St Jerome, 1997.<br /> ［4］Schleiermacher,A.On the Different Methods of Translating[A].Theories of Translation:An Anthologv of Essays from Drydento Derrida[C].Schulte,R.&amp;Biguenet,J.Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,1992,36-54.<br /> ［5］Steiner，George．After Babel: Aspects of Language andTranslation［M］．Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press，2001．<br /> ［6］Venuti，Lawrence．The Translator s Invisibility: [M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> ［7］Venuti，Lawrence．Translation Strategy［A］．in Baker，Mona，(ed．)Routledge Encyclopedia of TranslationStudies［C］．Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2004:240-244．<br /> ［8］方仪力．直译与意译：翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨［J］上海翻译，2012.<br /> ［9］李德超．TAPs 翻译过程研究二十年: 回顾与展望［J］．中国翻译，2005，(1):29-34<br /> ［10］刘英凯．归化--翻译的歧路［J］．现代外语,1987（2）<br /> ［11］刘艳丽、扬自俭．也谈“归化”与“异化”［J］．中国翻译，2002.<br /> ［12］王东风．归化与异化：矛与盾的交锋？［J］．中国翻译，2002.<br /> <br /> ==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 英美文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.<br /> <br /> === Key Words===<br /> <br /> ''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; Novel translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译<br /> <br /> === 摘 要 ===<br /> <br /> 翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，本文得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)<br /> <br /> ''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars(Wang Fei 2017, 152).<br /> <br /> This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.<br /> <br /> The thesis consists of five chapters.<br /> <br /> After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two gives a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is the statement of translation quality assessment. Chapter Five draws a concise conclusion about this paper.<br /> <br /> ===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===<br /> <br /> ''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''<br /> <br /> Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).<br /> <br /> ''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko's little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko's memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5). <br /> <br /> Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested(Liu Xiaoya 2015,8).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''<br /> <br /> There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from How Net, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma. <br /> <br /> In &quot;Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills&quot;, Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters( Wang Fei 2017,152). In &quot;Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''&quot;, He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(He Xiaobing 2018,3). In &quot;Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills&quot;, Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(Liu Xiaoya 2015,3).<br /> <br /> At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed. <br /> <br /> ''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)<br /> <br /> The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author's thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.<br /> <br /> ===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===<br /> <br /> Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', in an effort to foster the application of House's model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''<br /> <br /> The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that &quot;translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language.&quot;(House 1977, 30)<br /> <br /> In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province(House 1977, 30). <br /> <br /> Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated &quot;genre&quot; into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''<br /> <br /> When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> 1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> 2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> 3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''<br /> <br /> At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:<br /> <br /> 1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House's model to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> 2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House's TQA model.<br /> <br /> ===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===<br /> <br /> ''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Comparison on Field'''<br /> <br /> Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei 2015,114)<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''<br /> <br /> Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people's mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won't block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei 2015,115) <br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> ...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.<br /> <br /> 湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)<br /> <br /> Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error. <br /> <br /> Example 2：<br /> <br /> As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.<br /> <br /> 我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)<br /> <br /> In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error. <br /> <br /> Example 3：<br /> <br /> It's such a shame.<br /> <br /> 真不像话。(P16)<br /> <br /> A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error. <br /> <br /> Example 4：<br /> <br /> Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?<br /> <br /> 你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)<br /> <br /> In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.<br /> <br /> Example 5：<br /> <br /> It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.<br /> <br /> 不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)<br /> <br /> According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 6：<br /> <br /> Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition. <br /> <br /> 这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)<br /> <br /> “Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error. <br /> <br /> Example 7：<br /> <br /> You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.<br /> <br /> 悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)<br /> <br /> Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 8：<br /> <br /> “I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.<br /> <br /> “我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)<br /> <br /> Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practiced violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9：<br /> <br /> I could see something moving beside her in the shade.<br /> <br /> 我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)<br /> <br /> “Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''<br /> <br /> Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people's mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won't influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei 2015,116)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> It did upset me, hearing about her.<br /> <br /> 我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)<br /> <br /> Example 2：<br /> <br /> But I was sad though, when I heard.<br /> <br /> 可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)<br /> <br /> Example 3：<br /> <br /> It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.<br /> <br /> 这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)<br /> <br /> In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn't adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.<br /> <br /> Example 4：<br /> <br /> …certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.<br /> <br /> 一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)<br /> <br /> The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.<br /> <br /> Example 5：<br /> <br /> She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.<br /> <br /> 看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)<br /> <br /> The original is a compound-complex sentence with &quot;for&quot; for causal relation and &quot;as&quot; for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn't, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.<br /> <br /> Example 6：<br /> <br /> It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.<br /> <br /> 这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)<br /> <br /> The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.<br /> <br /> Example 7：<br /> <br /> There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.<br /> <br /> 及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)<br /> <br /> &quot;There's nothing like&quot; is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that &quot;a timely reminder of one's personal obligations&quot; is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error. <br /> <br /> Example 8：<br /> <br /> It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.<br /> <br /> 太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)<br /> <br /> The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although &quot;so much&quot; and &quot;so quickly&quot; modify the verb &quot;change&quot;, we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Textual Field'''<br /> <br /> On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei 2015,117)<br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> That's just not how it was though.<br /> <br /> 但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)<br /> <br /> According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''<br /> <br /> Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei 2015,118)<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''<br /> <br /> Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.<br /> <br /> 英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)<br /> <br /> In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator's understanding on author's attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author's attitude from readers. It is an overt error. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> “Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”<br /> <br /> “你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)<br /> <br /> Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko's mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text &quot;eventually&quot; signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> “Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”<br /> <br /> “告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)<br /> <br /> Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> <br /> I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.<br /> <br /> 我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)<br /> <br /> From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''<br /> <br /> Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei 2015,117)<br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.<br /> <br /> 她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)<br /> <br /> The translation omits &quot;be perfectly all right if&quot;, which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko's old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 2：<br /> <br /> As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.<br /> <br /> 我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)<br /> <br /> On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko's husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error. <br /> <br /> Example 3：<br /> <br /> I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.<br /> <br /> 也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)<br /> <br /> Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error. <br /> <br /> Example 4：<br /> <br /> Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.<br /> <br /> 现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)<br /> <br /> The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn't take account of the context, so it is a covert error.<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''<br /> <br /> Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Language Medium'''<br /> <br /> Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> …on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.<br /> <br /> 山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)<br /> <br /> Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 2：<br /> <br /> We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.<br /> <br /> 正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)<br /> <br /> The situation happens when Jiro's colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as &quot;rabble&quot; and &quot;like&quot; are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation &quot;正如&quot; is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.<br /> <br /> Example 3：<br /> <br /> Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.<br /> <br /> 很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)<br /> <br /> Example 4：<br /> <br /> Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.<br /> <br /> 现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)<br /> <br /> The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Participation'''<br /> <br /> Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> Example 1：<br /> <br /> That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.<br /> <br /> 这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)<br /> <br /> Example 2：<br /> <br /> It seems very disloyal.<br /> <br /> 这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.<br /> <br /> ===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===<br /> <br /> The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.(House 1997, 108)<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Overt Translation'''<br /> <br /> Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing. <br /> <br /> House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)<br /> <br /> In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.<br /> <br /> '''4.2 High-quality Translation'''<br /> <br /> This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi's Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is of high quality.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House's model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. <br /> <br /> On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.<br /> <br /> Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.(House 1997, 180)<br /> <br /> However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.(House 1997, 182)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Awla, Y. N. (2019). The The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'': An Eco-critical Study. ''Journal of University of Raparin''. 1-18.<br /> <br /> *House, J. (1977) ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment''. Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.<br /> <br /> *House, J. (1997) ''Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised''. German: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen. <br /> <br /> *Newmark, P. (2001) ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, L. (2000) ''Translation Criticism, the potentials &amp; Limitations''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Forsythe, R. (2005) Cultural Displacement and the Mother-Daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills''. ''West Virginia University Philological Papers''.<br /> <br /> *Jeremy M. (2001) ''Introduction Translation Studies: Theory and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Feng Yufang &amp; Wang Feifei丰玉芳, 王菲菲. (2015) 从豪斯的翻译质量评估模式看宋词翻译——以宋词《声声慢》和许渊冲英译本为例[Translation of Ci-poetry Based on J.House's TQA Model——A case study of ''Sheng Sheng Man'' and its English translation by Xu Yuanchong]. 扬州大学学报(人文社会科学版)[Journal of Yangzhou University(Humanities and Social Sciences Edition)]. 114-121.<br /> <br /> *He Xiaobing 贺晓冰. (2018) 论《远山淡影》的不可靠叙述与记忆[Memory and Narrative Unreliability in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 西安外国语大学[Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Ruiping 姜睿萍. (2007) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在英汉互译中的可行性分析[An Analysis on the Feasibility of House s TQA Model in CE Translation]. 哈尔滨工程大学[Harbin Engineering University]. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaolin &amp; He Shaobin 李晓林, 何绍斌. (2010) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”运作过程可行性浅评[The Feasibility of House's Model of Translation Quality Assessment]. 哈尔滨学院学报[Journal of Harbin University]. 127-1.<br /> <br /> *Liu Xiaoya 刘晓亚. (2015) 《远山淡影》中的创伤研究[Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 四川师范大学[Journal of Sichuan Normal University(Social Sciences Edition)].<br /> <br /> *Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.<br /> <br /> *Tang Jun &amp; Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.<br /> <br /> *Wang Lichuan 王丽川. (2019) 《远山淡影》中的反讽解读[A Study of the Irony in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 河南: 郑州大学[Henan: Journal of Zhengzhou University].<br /> <br /> *Wang Fei 王飞. (2017) 石黑一雄中的身份焦虑[Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 中南大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Central South University(Social Science)]. 152-157.<br /> <br /> *Zhou Fenfen 周芬芬. (2013) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式的实践应用——以《荷塘月色》英译本为例[The Application of Translation Quality Assessment Model by Julian House——A Case Study on Chinese-English Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Shanxi Agricultural University:Social Science Edition]. 782-786.<br /> <br /> ==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--Wei Honglang 韦洪朗,国别区域研究，202020080647==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract<br /> This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 摘 要<br /> 本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction ===<br /> <br /> In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”at that time, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)<br /> <br /> This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)<br /> <br /> This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)<br /> <br /> ===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===<br /> <br /> When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his &quot;A Textbook of Translation&quot;, proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Literal translation ===<br /> <br /> Literal translation is the method chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of &quot;The Bible&quot; in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Free translation===<br /> <br /> It’s better if we can have langugage forms and meanings achieved both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===<br /> <br /> Here are some specific examples of the contrast between literal translation and free translation：<br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 On words===<br /> <br /> ST:&quot;Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? &quot;<br /> <br /> Literal translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？<br /> <br /> Free translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？<br /> <br /> From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into &quot;亚当的苹果&quot;, but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, &quot;Adam's apple&quot; refers to &quot;喉结&quot; in Chinese instead of literally meaning &quot;亚当的苹果&quot;, so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 On sentence structures===<br /> <br /> ST:&quot;Here comes the bus!&quot;<br /> <br /> Literal translating: 这来了巴士!<br /> <br /> Free translating: 巴士来了!<br /> <br /> According to the literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===<br /> <br /> ST: &quot;If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did.&quot;(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)<br /> <br /> Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。<br /> <br /> Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)<br /> <br /> From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===<br /> <br /> According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL(Source Language) and free translation considers more about TL(Target Language) users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)<br /> <br /> ===III.Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in &quot;The Translator's Invisibility&quot; in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way.（Chen Ying 2009,42）<br /> <br /> Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Domestication ===<br /> <br /> Domestication refers to a translation strategy dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A. Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Venuti studies translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is used to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Examples for domesticating translation and foreignizing translation:<br /> <br /> ===3.3.1 On Politics===<br /> <br /> Titles：동해 (donghae)&amp; にほんかい(nihonkai)<br /> <br /> Since the 19th century, the world has experienced terrible periods of two world wars and the Cold War . During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's &quot;roads&quot; and directions, different ideologies and political positions having a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. (Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)<br /> <br /> For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area &quot;동해&quot;(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name &quot;Japan Sea&quot;(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)<br /> <br /> ===3.3.2 On Culture===<br /> <br /> ST:“情人眼里出西施。”<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation: Love is blind.<br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.<br /> <br /> This example shows relevantly how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the &quot;translation results&quot; look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word &quot;Xi Shi&quot;, it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and &quot;西施&quot; in &quot;情人眼里出西施&quot; means &quot;beauty&quot;), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.<br /> <br /> ===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> Through the above analysis, it can be concluded that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and reasonable existence. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)<br /> <br /> ===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: &quot;Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics.(Sun Zhili 2011,27) &quot; Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them. <br /> <br /> ===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> These two pairs of conceptss have some points in common. First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the source text can be sacrificed. However，they are not the same in the following aspect. The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. (Zhao Jing 2011,62) <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation. Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62) <br /> <br /> ===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these two pairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition move from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===<br /> <br /> According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)<br /> <br /> (1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子 <br /> <br /> (2)the forbidden fruit 禁果<br /> <br /> The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation works out, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. &quot;Pandora's box&quot; comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even be quoted in daily communication, which has played the purpose of &quot;understanding other national cultures through translation&quot;; Similarly, &quot;forbidden fruit&quot; comes from &quot;The Bible&quot;, which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===<br /> <br /> Similarly, free translation is visible in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)<br /> <br /> (1)drink like a fish 牛饮<br /> <br /> (2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦<br /> <br /> As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into &quot;像鱼一样喝水&quot;, it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, because there is no such statement way in China, which leads to misunderstanding or confusion.. However, if we translate &quot;drink like a fish&quot; into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as &quot;drink like a fish&quot; in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting but also easy to understand.<br /> <br /> However, in the process of actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).<br /> <br /> ===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===<br /> <br /> Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies. For instances:<br /> <br /> (1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）<br /> <br /> We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;把尾巴夹紧&quot; in Chinese coincides with &quot;tuck tail between our legs&quot; in English. In this example, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> (2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)<br /> <br /> Kill two birds with one stone.<br /> <br /> Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, &quot;一石二鸟&quot; can also be synonymous with &quot;一箭双雕&quot; and &quot;一举两得&quot;, which can be chosen when translating &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot; if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.<br /> <br /> Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of &quot;concrete analysis of specific problems&quot;, flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange. <br /> <br /> ===V.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach a better version of translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange. <br /> <br /> Therefore, to some extent, translation plays the role of cultural &quot;fax&quot;. In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, and it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a &quot;cultural bridge&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.<br /> <br /> Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political &amp; Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.<br /> <br /> Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.<br /> <br /> Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译 归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.<br /> <br /> Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&amp;New York: Routledge.<br /> --[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation - 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei,202020080648==<br /> 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> '''（建议题目改写成On C-E Translation of Tourist Text from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation-Exemplified by Tourist Texts Translation of Summer Palace ）'''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large('''large 改成abundant适合一些)''' and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be '''(placed可删除)''' under special state protection. --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.<br /> <br /> Based on the functionalist approach'''(add -es)'''and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach'''(add -es)''' can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on('''relying on 改用applying好像好一些''') the theory of functionalist approach.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies<br /> ===题目===<br /> 从功能派翻译理论视角看旅游文本英译—以北京景点颐和园为例<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。<br /> 本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。<br /> ===关键字===<br /> 功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略<br /> ===Table of Contents===<br /> '''(改成 Contents)'''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Outline '''(outline 可以去掉）'''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 1.Introduction<br /> 2. Studies on Functionalist Approach<br /> 2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach<br /> 2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology<br /> 2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory<br /> 2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action<br /> 2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty<br /> 2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach <br /> 3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach<br /> 3.1 Garden Culture<br /> 3.2 Historical Culture <br /> 3.3 Religious Culture <br /> 4. Conclusion<br /> References'''（5.References）'''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Outline===<br /> <br /> Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.<br /> <br /> 1. Introduction<br /> 2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches<br /> 2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach<br /> 2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology<br /> 2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory<br /> 2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action<br /> 2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty<br /> 2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach<br /> 3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach<br /> 3.1 Garden Culture<br /> 3.2 Historical Culture<br /> 3.3 Religious Culture<br /> 4. Conclusion'''（为啥重复了这段）'''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture. <br /> Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the &quot;skopos rule&quot; as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.<br /> <br /> As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large'''（建议large 改成 abundant or rich）''' and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions. --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===<br /> Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===<br /> In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namely ‚evaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.<br /> <br /> Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)<br /> <br /> Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text, the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).<br /> <br /> Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.<br /> <br /> It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===<br /> Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process ‚ proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).'''(建议这种可以分列成小标题)<br /> '''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===<br /> Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose” <br /> (Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.<br /> <br /> The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in<br /> form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of culturaltransformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive factor for the target text.In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”(Mundy, 2001).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===<br /> <br /> Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.<br /> <br /> “Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===<br /> In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe &amp; Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli &amp; Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory &amp; Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng &amp; He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng &amp; He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng &amp; He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).'''(段落过长，建议适当分段写）'''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with &quot;translation purpose&quot; as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text. <br /> <br /> Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between &quot;principle of purpose&quot; and &quot;principle of fidelity&quot; as far as possible.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.<br /> <br /> Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation. <br /> <br /> On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery. <br /> <br /> Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.<br /> <br /> ===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===<br /> By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.<br /> The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.<br /> ===Approach===<br /> By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.<br /> The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Garden culture.===<br /> The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.<br /> <br /> (1)排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。<br /> <br /> Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole.<br /> <br /> Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with &quot;symmetry&quot;. The &quot;axis&quot; in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating &quot;axis&quot; as &quot;center&quot; cannot express accurately the meaning of &quot;symmetry&quot;. Comparatively speaking, &quot;axis&quot; can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> (2)从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。<br /> <br /> Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.<br /> <br /> Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, &quot;层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体&quot; is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, &quot;气势巍峨，金碧辉煌&quot; focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.<br /> <br /> (3)主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。<br /> <br /> Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into &quot;Wenchang Tower&quot; is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of &quot;pavilion&quot; and &quot;tower&quot; have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means &quot;a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle&quot;, mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. &quot;Pavilion&quot; means &quot;a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances&quot;. The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Historical culture. ===<br /> The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:<br /> <br /> (4)此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。<br /> <br /> Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.<br /> <br /> Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Religious culture. ===<br /> Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.<br /> <br /> (5)主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。<br /> <br /> Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.<br /> <br /> Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate &quot;文昌帝军&quot; and &quot;武圣&quot; into &quot;the god, Wenchang&quot; and &quot;the Martial god&quot; in the translation. In fact, the &quot;文昌帝军&quot; was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And &quot;武圣&quot; refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of &quot;God&quot; is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if &quot;文昌帝军&quot; is translated as &quot;the emperor, Wenchang&quot; and &quot;武圣&quot; is translated as &quot;the Martial Master (Guanyu)&quot;, it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language. <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should '''have cross-cultural awareness''', fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately. <br /> <br /> Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.<br /> <br /> <br /> Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse '''and''' the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Hans Vermmer, “Skopos and Commission in Translation Action”, in the Translation Studies Reader,ed. Chesterman, London and Network:Routledge,p.221-232. 2000. <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001.<br /> Mason, “Textual Practices and Audience Design: and Interactive View of the Tourist Brrochure”. In Navarro et al.(eds.). Pragmatics at Work: The Translation of Tourist Literature. Bern: Perter Lang. 157-176.2004.<br /> Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006.<br /> Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245.<br /> Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials &amp; Limitations. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Shanghai. 2004.<br /> Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995.<br /> 方梦之、毛忠明， 英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004.<br /> 金惠康，跨文化旅游翻译，中国对外翻译出版公司，2004. <br /> 贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004<br /> 孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期. <br /> 王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000.<br /> 吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005.<br /> 谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005.<br /> 张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995.<br /> 仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999.<br /> 张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''(文献引用格式有点不对，忘了空格）<br /> ===References===<br /> Hans Vermmer, “Skopos and Commission in Translation Action”, in the Translation Studies Reader,ed. Chesterman, London and Network:Routledge,p.221-232. 2000. <br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001.<br /> <br /> Mason, “Textual Practices and Audience Design: and Interactive View of the Tourist Brrochure”. In Navarro et al.(eds.). Pragmatics at Work: The Translation of Tourist Literature. Bern: Perter Lang. 157-176.2004.<br /> <br /> Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006.<br /> <br /> Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245.<br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials &amp; Limitations. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Shanghai. 2004.<br /> <br /> Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995.<br /> <br /> 方梦之、毛忠明， 英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004.<br /> <br /> 金惠康，跨文化旅游翻译，中国对外翻译出版公司，2004. <br /> <br /> 贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004<br /> <br /> 孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期. <br /> <br /> 王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> 吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005.<br /> <br /> 谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005.<br /> <br /> 张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995.<br /> <br /> 仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999.<br /> <br /> 张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.<br /> <br /> '''--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张雪仪 202020080668&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract===<br /> <br /> The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.<br /> <br /> The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed issue in translation studies. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people of different languages can understand each other's culture. Due to the differences of social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, translators need to compare the two methods and weigh their advantages and disadvantages. This paper mainly analyzes the literal translation and free translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs in the process of Chinese translation, and explores the differences of different idioms translated by different methods, so as to help students and translators better carry out translation practice.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Key words ===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation <br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。<br /> <br /> 直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，需要译者对这两种方法进行比较，衡量利弊。本文主要分析俄语成语和谚语在汉译过程中的直译和意译，探寻不同成语用不同方法翻译所产生的差别在以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略，直译，意译<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: &quot;Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning.&quot; Mr. Lu Xun once advocated &quot;literal translation.&quot; He said: &quot;Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)<br /> <br /> Fedorov, a translation theorist of the former Soviet Union, believes that &quot;translation is an activity that expresses something that has been expressed in one language as a unity of content and form, and expressed accurately and completely in another language.&quot; Balhudarov, a translation theorist, once wrote: &quot;translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content, that is, meaning.&quot; Lu Xun once advocated literal translation. He said, &quot;translation must take both sides into consideration;(Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original.&quot; The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as &quot;faithful and smooth.&quot; To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)<br /> <br /> One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original.&quot; The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as &quot;faithful and smooth.&quot; To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)<br /> <br /> Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay will take the Chinese translation of Russian idioms and proverbs as examples to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages, and their relationships, in order to help students who learn Russian understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)<br /> <br /> Russian Idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of Russian national wisdom and immortal fossils in Russian, are one of the best materials for China to understand and learn Russian history, culture and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, Russian and Chinese have formed different cultural backgrounds, which have caused great difficulties for Russian people to further understand Russia. This paper will take the Chinese translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs as an example to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their advantages and disadvantages, and their relationship, so as to help Russian students better understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Controversy between literal translation and free translation===<br /> <br /> In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.<br /> <br /> In different periods and countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate on literal translation and free translation has always existed.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====<br /> <br /> Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)<br /> <br /> Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)<br /> <br /> However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The contradiction between modern literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)<br /> <br /> The contradiction between literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of the two translation methods. Sun guiding, a translator, believes that literal translation is rigidly based on the structure of the original words and sentences, without considering whether the Chinese language is smooth or natural; while free translation is to use Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as far as possible in addition to specialized subject nouns, so as to achieve the effect of transmitting the meaning of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)<br /> <br /> Du zuozhou, former president of Wuhan University, believes that literal translation is to translate word for word according to the original text; free translation is to translate according to the original meaning, and the translation is more appropriate to the common grammar of the translated language. Meng Xiancheng, an educator, believes that literal translation is a translation with different technical correctness. Literal translation refers to faithful and correct translation according to the original text; free translation refers to the translation of the general idea of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhu Guangqian said: &quot;The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. &quot; Feng Shize believes that &quot;translation and literal translation are up-and-down relations; between literal translation and free translation is the left-right relationship. If the reversal of word order and other methods are free translation, then the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation besides free translation. &quot;(Feng Shize 1981,10) <br /> <br /> Zhu Guangqian said, &quot;literal translation&quot; refers to the literal translation of the original text. Every word is translated one word at a time, and the order of each sentence is not changed. The so-called &quot;free translation&quot; is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, without having to follow the literal and sequential order of the original text. &quot; Feng Shize thinks that &quot;the relationship between translation and literal translation is up-down, while that between literal translation and free translation is left-right relationship. They are involved in each other and must become a system. If the word order is reversed as free translation, the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation to speak of except free translation. &quot;(Feng Shize 1981,10) --[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard &quot;faithfulness and expressiveness&quot; as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)<br /> <br /> The principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard &quot;faithfulness and expressiveness&quot; as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)<br /> <br /> Moreover, in the process of translation, there are many differences between the source language and the target language in terms of word order, grammar, form change and rhetoric. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. Therefore, the translator should consider the actual semantic, background and other factors to convey the content of the original text and reproduce the language style of the original work in an appropriate way without losing the original meaning of the sentence.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====<br /> In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)<br /> <br /> In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, western translation theories could not be widely spread. However, within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to those of western translation theories were formed and developed, and two major translation theory schools, language school and literary school, were further divided. To some extent, the debate between the two schools reflects the debate between translators' groups on literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)<br /> <br /> In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work &quot;Summary of Translation Theory&quot;, which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)<br /> <br /> The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work &quot;Summary of Translation Theory&quot;, which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)<br /> <br /> However, feodorov's view was refuted by the literary school represented by Kashin. The school of literature and art holds that aesthetics is the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. As a matter of fact, literature and art school emphasizes the translation of literary works, which belongs to the specific translation theory, while the study of language school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of works of all subjects including literary works. The debate between linguistic school and literary school provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===<br /> <br /> The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)<br /> <br /> Idioms of different nationalities are not only the most dynamic and expressive units in different languages, but also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, which records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)<br /> <br /> Due to the great differences in geographical location and customs between China and Russia, the national culture reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its image. When translating idioms, both meaning and image should be considered. Although there are great cultural differences between China and Russia, many commonalities of human beings, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Literal translation ====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)<br /> <br /> In short, literal translation refers to a method of translating the original text directly without changing the language features and styles of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. The advantage of literal translation in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is that it can express the meaning of idioms intuitively and faithfully, and maintain the unique style and image of the original text. However, the disadvantage is that the translated idioms may not be understood by the Chinese people. This is because the historical and cultural background, grammatical structure and language world picture of Chinese and Russian are different, and it is easy to form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)<br /> <br /> Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:<br /> <br /> домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防<br /> <br /> знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌<br /> <br /> подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油<br /> <br /> как рыба в воде 如鱼得水<br /> <br /> как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割<br /> <br /> как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳<br /> <br /> на добро отвечают добром 善有善报<br /> <br /> копейка рубль бережет 财从细起<br /> <br /> мечты сбываются 梦想成真<br /> <br /> курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡<br /> <br /> чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)<br /> <br /> изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒<br /> <br /> сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡<br /> <br /> действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩<br /> <br /> зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才<br /> <br /> висеть на волоске 千钧一发<br /> <br /> лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation. <br /> <br /> In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g: <br /> <br /> настоять на своем 坚持自己<br /> <br /> камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地<br /> <br /> связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连<br /> <br /> быть на голову 高出一头<br /> <br /> вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌<br /> <br /> блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过<br /> <br /> с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.<br /> <br /> ==== Free translation ====<br /> <br /> Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Vocabulary gaps between languages are a common phenomenon, causing many difficulties for translation. There are many reasons for the vacancy of vocabulary, such as cultural reasons such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs, and linguistic reasons. There are roughly two ways to fill the language gaps — paraphrasing by replacing the image.and discarding images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)<br /> <br /> Another method commonly used in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. The lexical gap between languages is a common phenomenon, which causes many difficulties in translation. The causes of lexical vacancy are various, such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs and other cultural reasons, as well as linguistic reasons. There are generally two ways to fill the gaps in language: replacing images for free translation and abandoning images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Russian says &quot;Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).&quot;, while Chinese says &quot;一山不容二虎&quot;. Another example is &quot;Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) &quot; in Russian, and &quot;人走茶凉&quot; in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> For the &quot;harmony&quot; of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:<br /> <br /> Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)<br /> 我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。<br /> <br /> “Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is &quot;神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子&quot; . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)<br /> <br /> The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is &quot;the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）&quot;. It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, &quot;белая ворона&quot; often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014) <br /> <br /> Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for &quot;different people&quot;, such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. &quot;Crane&quot; and &quot;phoenix&quot; have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with &quot; Corresponding to &quot;White Crow&quot;, it is not suitable for translating &quot;белая ворона&quot;.Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014) <br /> <br /> Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)<br /> 直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。<br /> 意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。<br /> <br /> Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)<br /> 直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。<br /> 意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。<br /> <br /> Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.<br /> 直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。<br /> 意译：多此一举<br /> <br /> Честь лучше бесчестья.<br /> 直译：尊重比不尊重好。<br /> 意译：礼多人不怪。<br /> <br /> словно горя с плеч<br /> 直译：把山从肩膀下卸下<br /> 意译：如释重负<br /> <br /> выеденного яйца не стоит<br /> 直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱<br /> 意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值<br /> <br /> чужими руками жар загребать<br /> 直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆<br /> 意译：坐享其成，不劳而获<br /> <br /> ни рыба, ни мясо<br /> 直译：没有鱼也没有肉<br /> 意译：不三不四，不伦不类<br /> <br /> лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе<br /> 直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀<br /> 意译：远亲不如近邻<br /> <br /> На языке мед, а под лед<br /> 直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰<br /> 意译：笑里藏刀<br /> <br /> И на солнце есть пятна<br /> 直译：太阳上也有黑点<br /> 意译：人无完人<br /> <br /> семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь<br /> 直译：测量了七次后再剪裁<br /> 意译：三思而后行(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)<br /> <br /> === The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===<br /> <br /> There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)<br /> <br /> The same Russian proverb often has more than one translation in Russian Chinese dictionary. On the other hand, the translator can't translate the proverb because of its rich connotation. According to the context and the connotation of proverbs themselves, literal translation and free translation are the most commonly used methods of translating Russian proverbs into Chinese.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Literal translation ====<br /> <br /> In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. The other situation is the experience that the Russians summed up in their long labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb, but the Chinese have not summed up this experience, so translating Russian proverbs into Chinese literally, Chinese people can understand them at a glance and increase their knowledge of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)<br /> <br /> In Russian and Chinese, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implied meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express the same meaning, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of Chinese proverbs with synonyms can convey the information contained in the image of the original language, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables readers to understand the original text perfectly. The other is that the Russian people have summed up the experience in their long-term labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb. However, the Chinese have not summed up this experience. If the Russian proverbs are translated into Chinese, the Chinese can clearly understand it at a glance and increase their understanding of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。<br /> <br /> Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。<br /> <br /> Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。<br /> <br /> Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。<br /> <br /> Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。<br /> <br /> Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。<br /> <br /> Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。<br /> <br /> Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。<br /> <br /> Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。<br /> <br /> По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, &quot;Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца.&quot; In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as &quot;欺软怕硬 &quot;, but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as &quot;见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊&quot; , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. &quot; can be translated as &quot;一物降一物&quot;, but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as &quot;one thing drops one thing &quot;狐惊兔，兔惊蛙&quot;, this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> The translation of Russian proverbs by literal translation not only maintains the original language, but also transplants the unique image language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the horizons of Chinese readers, but also enriches the way of expression in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> The literal translation of Russian proverbs not only keeps the style of the original language, but also transplants the unique figurative language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the vision of Chinese readers, but also enriches the expression of Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Free translation ====<br /> <br /> Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs expressing the same semantics use different metaphors. Some Russian proverbs are difficult to retain the original image in the process of translation into Chinese. If literally translated according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translation is difficult to be accepted by the Chinese, and even misunderstood may occur.(Jia Sufen 1996) <br /> <br /> Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs with the same meaning use different figurative images. In the process of translating some Russian proverbs into Chinese, it is difficult to retain the image of the original text. If literal translation is made according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translated version is difficult to be accepted by Chinese people and even misread.(Jia Sufen 1996) --[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text to readers, we can readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of a correct understanding of the meaning of the original text, and use standard Chinese expressions to reproduce Russian proverbs to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> In order to convey the original meaning to readers accurately, we can explore the story behind the proverb. On the basis of correctly understanding the meaning of the original text, we can readjust the structure of the original text, and reproduce Russian proverbs with standard Chinese expression, so as to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb &quot;В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔&quot;, which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as &quot;胡说八道&quot;, &quot;前言不搭后语&quot; or more easily understood &quot;满嘴跑火车&quot;. (Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;На воре шапка горит.&quot; literally means &quot;the hat on the thief's head is on fire&quot;. In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted &quot;Catch the thief&quot;, but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, &quot;The thief's hat is on fire.&quot; After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, &quot;На воре шапка горит.&quot; can be paraphrased as &quot;不打自招&quot; or &quot;做贼心虚.&quot;(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:<br /> <br /> От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.<br /> 直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。<br /> 意译：劳动使人快乐。<br /> <br /> Баба с возу- кобыле легче.<br /> 直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。<br /> 意译：求之不得<br /> <br /> Герой не моего романа.<br /> 直译：不是我小说中的主人公。<br /> 意译：不是我的意中人。<br /> <br /> Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.<br /> 直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。<br /> 意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。<br /> <br /> Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.<br /> 直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。<br /> 意译：日久见人心。<br /> <br /> Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.<br /> 直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。<br /> 意译：得寸进尺。<br /> <br /> Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.<br /> 直译：黑色的狗洗不白。<br /> 意译：本性难改。<br /> <br /> Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.<br /> 直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。<br /> 意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。<br /> <br /> За что купил, за то и продаю.<br /> 直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。<br /> 意译：人云亦云。<br /> <br /> Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.<br /> 直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。<br /> 意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of lexical structure, syntactic structure, expression methods and metaphors. In many cases, translators understand the original meaning but do not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works that are more contradictory between bilinguals, translators often use free translation methods. When translating works that are consistent or have more common points than contradictions or conflicts between bilinguals, translators tend to choose literal translation .<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of vocabulary composition, syntactic structure, expression and metaphor. Most of the time, the translator understands the original meaning but does not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works with more contradictions between bilinguals, they tend to use free translation. When there are more similarities or similarities between bilinguals than contradictions or conflicts, translators will tend to literal translation in order to be faithful to the original text.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.<br /> <br /> In fact, literal translation and free translation in the process of translation are interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when translating an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator skillfully arranges the alternation of the two, can we translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effect of division of labor and cooperation between them, and should not one-sided understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua. 蔡毅，段京华. (2000). 苏联翻译理论. [Soviet Translation Theory]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> *Feng Shize. 冯世则. (1981). 直译、意译、逐字译. [Literal Translation, Free Translation, Verbatim Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 7-10.<br /> *Feng Shujian. 冯树鉴. (1993). 意译与直译笔谈. [Written Free Translation and Literal Translation]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 43-47.<br /> *Feng Yongmei. 冯咏梅. (1999). 浅谈俄语成语翻译中民族文化特色的保留. [On the Preservation of National Cultural Characteristics in Russian Idiom Translation]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 97-100.<br /> *Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.<br /> *Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.<br /> *Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].<br /> *Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.<br /> *Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> *Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.<br /> *Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.<br /> *Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.<br /> *Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.<br /> *Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.<br /> <br /> ==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and over free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 直译与意译之争中的辩证思维<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 直译； 意译； 死译； 过度意译； 对立统一<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random translation, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a few of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a dialectical and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this dialectical translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.<br /> <br /> The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of &quot;text&quot; and &quot;quality&quot; in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. He suggested the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both loyalty and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) In another word, literal translation should complement with free translation, not just using one method. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. <br /> <br /> After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faithfulness, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faithfulness first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faithfulness and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）<br /> <br /> Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, has put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation but perform as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over free translation and arbitrary deletion. <br /> <br /> Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated dialectical and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned this method in his practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not desirable. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )<br /> <br /> The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites between them. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over free translation. From these two parts, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the dialectical translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation from the view of definitions and application fields. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)<br /> <br /> ===1.Dialectical thinking of the Unity of opposites===<br /> The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)<br /> <br /> The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.<br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over free translation, while the unity is reflected in their commons. More clearly, there are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)<br /> <br /> ===2.Word-for-word translation===<br /> <br /> Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.<br /> <br /> In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) In another word, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed by use of complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.<br /> <br /> Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese is the more dynamic one, and verbs are more active in it. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. Literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.<br /> <br /> ===3.Over free translation===<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.<br /> <br /> When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.<br /> <br /> However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as the correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.Dialectical translation===<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.<br /> <br /> In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into &quot;砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮,也不能使社会问题烟消云散&quot;, while in free translation, we can turn it into &quot;砸镜子并不能解决实际问题&quot;. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.<br /> <br /> Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the specific situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expressive form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. We should adopt dialectical translation in our practice.<br /> <br /> ===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Opposition===<br /> <br /> ===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===<br /> Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as targets, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,78)<br /> <br /> ===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, literal translation is used to translate some political books, laws, treaties, scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, &quot;纸老虎&quot; can only be translated as &quot;paper tiger&quot; but not &quot;scarecrow&quot;. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into &quot;scarecrow&quot;. Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into &quot;scarecrow&quot;, it will lose duality. Because &quot;纸老虎&quot; in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems scary but no great power in it. Since it is made of paper, this tiger becomes soft in the damp and finally was washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be applied, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't be translated directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate&quot;初生牛犊不怕虎&quot; into &quot;A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger&quot;, then our target readers in English-speaking countries will find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here &quot;The more wit, the less courage&quot; will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, &quot;have a wolf in the stomach&quot; means &quot;饥肠辘辘&quot; 饥饿难忍&quot; rather than &quot;肚子里有个豺狼&quot;. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as &quot;the heel of Achilles&quot; into &quot;致命的弱点&quot; instead of &quot;阿克琉斯的脚后跟&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===5.2 Unity===<br /> ===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===<br /> In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It is clear that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)<br /> <br /> The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been realized.<br /> <br /> Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation goal to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention.(He Lirong 2018, 41)<br /> <br /> ===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===<br /> The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expressing and verifying.<br /> <br /> Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expressing is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on. The third stage is verifying. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.<br /> <br /> Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expressing and verifying in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expressing are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses proper expression and further deepen his or her understanding.<br /> <br /> ===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===<br /> On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of &quot;good translation&quot; on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance&quot;, Chen Xiying's theory of &quot;similarities in shape, meaning and spirit&quot;, Lin Yutang's translation standards of &quot;loyalty, smoothness and beauty&quot;. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)<br /> <br /> No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet it only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definitions and applicable fields, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation goal, they both follow the same three procedures of understanding, expressing and verifying.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analyzing original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.<br /> <br /> Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Huaiyu Mu,Jijun Wang.(2019).Unified Dialectical Relations of Terms in English-Chinese Translation[J].Journal of Language Teaching and Research 10(6).<br /> <br /> Siyu Zou.(2017).Dialectical Relationship between Translation Theory and Practice[J].Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Education, Management, Information and Mechanical Engineering (EMIM 2017).<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2011).中国译学史[History of translation studies in China].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> Cao Huoqun 曹火群.(2005).翻译中的辩证关系[Dialectic relationships in translation].孝感学院学报 Journal of Xiaogan University (05) 39-43.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua 冯庆华.(2002).实用翻译教程[Practical translation course].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Fan Zhongying 范仲英.(1994).实用翻译教程[Practical Translation Course].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> He Lirong 何历蓉.(2018).论“直译与意译”在英汉翻译中的对立与统一 [On the opposition and unity of literal translation and Free Translation in English-Chinese translation]. 宿州教育学院学报 journal of suzhou education institute 21(04):40-43.<br /> <br /> Qiao zengrui 乔曾锐.(2000).译论—翻译经验与翻译艺术的评论和探讨 [Translation theory: A review of translation experience and the art of translation]. Beijing: China Industry and Commerce Joint Press.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Western translation]. Beijing：Commercial press.<br /> <br /> Wu Shuang 吴爽.(2018).翻译的最高境界—直译与意译的完美统一[The highest level of translation - the perfect unity of literal translation and free translation].现代交际 Modern communication (08):107-108.<br /> <br /> Xu Guoliang 徐国亮.(2020).对立统一：唯物辩证法的核心与列宁的发展[Unity of opposites: The Core of Materialist Dialectics and The development of Lenin]. 中共中央党校（国家行政学院）学报 Journal of Party School of the CPC Central Committee (National Academy of Governance) 24(05):75-83.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲.(1980).直译与意译[literal translation and free translation]. Journal of Foreign Languages (6).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲.(1996).译家之言[The Word of the Translator].出版广角 View on Publishing(6):92-94.<br /> <br /> Yan Mengwei 阎孟伟.(2020).关于唯物辩证法矛盾学说的几个基本问题[Some basic questions about the contradiction theory of materialist dialectics]. 思想理论教育导刊 Journal of ideological and theoretical education (08):40-47.<br /> <br /> Yang Yin 杨颖.(2019).浅谈直译与意译的动态统一[On the dynamic unity of literal translation and free translation].海外英语 Overseas English (17):160-161.<br /> <br /> Zhu Xiaojia 朱晓嘉.(2008).形合、意合的辩证观与翻译策略 [Dialectic thinking and Translation strategies of hypotaxis and Parataxis].Nanjing: Nanjing Normal University.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi,202070080627==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation bases on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.<br /> <br /> The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation base'''d''' on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)<br /> <br /> According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been '''done''' over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, '''including''' quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Literal Translation and Free Translation===<br /> <br /> ====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br /> <br /> From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> =====Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on. <br /> <br /> According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into &quot;to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech&quot;. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52) <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as &quot;the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)<br /> <br /> Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, &quot;sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors.&quot;(Newmark 2001, 46) <br /> <br /> Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)<br /> <br /> <br /> Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version expresses the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message. <br /> <br /> Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as &quot;a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact.&quot; (Shuttle worth&amp;Cowie 2004, 62)<br /> <br /> Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)<br /> <br /> Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)<br /> <br /> ====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals. <br /> <br /> Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said &quot;I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language.&quot; (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward mainly two viewpoints. Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)<br /> <br /> Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65) <br /> <br /> Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)<br /> <br /> Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation us almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem &quot;what is the boundary between them?&quot; He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan &amp; Sun Weihong 2012, 80)<br /> Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation '''is''' almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect. '''Any''' discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem &quot;what is the boundary between them?&quot; He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan &amp; Sun Weihong 2012, 80)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. '''Also, there is the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content.''' For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.<br /> <br /> ===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===<br /> <br /> To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)<br /> <br /> ====Semantic Translation====<br /> <br /> Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as &quot;Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. &quot; As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22) Here is an example.<br /> <br /> E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> <br /> Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.<br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.<br /> <br /> ====Communicative Translation====<br /> <br /> Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)<br /> <br /> Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)<br /> <br /> E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> <br /> Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.<br /> <br /> This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated &quot;天&quot; into &quot;God&quot;. In western culture, people believe that &quot;God&quot; is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====<br /> <br /> The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite. <br /> <br /> Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form. <br /> <br /> Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes. <br /> <br /> Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function. <br /> <br /> In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)<br /> <br /> Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.<br /> <br /> E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。<br /> <br /> Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.<br /> <br /> David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won. <br /> <br /> In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers. <br /> <br /> E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。<br /> <br /> Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”<br /> <br /> David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.<br /> <br /> E.g. Wet Paint!<br /> <br /> Version 1: 湿油漆<br /> <br /> Version 2: 油漆未干<br /> <br /> Version 3: 小心油漆<br /> <br /> Version 4: 勿触油漆<br /> <br /> This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint. <br /> <br /> However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them.<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> <br /> Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context. <br /> <br /> Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: &quot;(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers.&quot; (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.<br /> <br /> As for informative text, Newmark proposes that &quot;typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)<br /> <br /> &quot;The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text.&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.<br /> <br /> ===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===<br /> <br /> It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that &quot;translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating.&quot; (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative. What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, &quot;more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact.&quot; (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)<br /> <br /> Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)<br /> &quot;(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author.&quot; (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)<br /> <br /> SL emphasis TL emphasis<br /> word for word translation Adaption<br /> Literal translation Free translation<br /> Faithful translation Idiomatic translation<br /> Semantic translation Communicative translation<br /> <br /> The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.<br /> <br /> Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element &quot;aesthetic value&quot;. Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the &quot;effect&quot;, and refines communicative translation to be more specific, &quot;communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.&quot; (Newmark 1988, 47)<br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===<br /> <br /> The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, &quot;time flies&quot; in English can be directly translated into Chinese as &quot;时间飞逝&quot;, as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.<br /> <br /> As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process. <br /> <br /> In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida,E.A[尤金·A·奈达].(1985).''Translating means Translating meaning''《翻译即译意》.UNESCO: Publication of FIT. <br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter[彼得·纽马克]. (1991). ''About Translation''《关于翻译》. North Somerset: Multilingual Matters<br /> <br /> *Newmark,Peter[彼得·纽马克].(1998). ''A Textbook of Translation''《翻译教科书》. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd. <br /> <br /> *Newmark, Peter[彼得·纽马克]. (1981). ''Approaches to Translation''《翻译方法》. Oxford: Pergamon Press.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie[沙特尔沃斯&amp;考伊]. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''《翻译研究词典》. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *陈伯雨 Chen Boyu. “翻译对等” 研究[Study on Translation Equivalence]. 辽宁师范大学[Liaoning Normal University]. 2003.<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *程永生 Cheng Yongsheng.中国近现代直译与意译研究[Research on Modern Chinese Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 淮南工业学院学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Huainan Institute of Technology(Social Science)]. 2002.<br /> <br /> *李明瀚 Li Minghan.语义翻译和交际翻译在汉语政论文翻译中的应用[Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation in the Translation of Chinese Political Writings]. 辽宁大学[Liaoning University]. 2014.<br /> <br /> *林小芹 Lin Xiaoqin.纽马克论交际翻译与语义翻译[Newmark's Study on Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]. 1987. <br /> <br /> *刘重德 Liu Zhongde.文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：对外翻译出版社[Foreign Translation Press]. 1991.<br /> <br /> *任文 Ren Wen.交替传译[Consecutive Interpretation]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]. 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi.《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Short History of Translation in the West(Updated Version)'']. 北京：商务印书馆[Commercial Press]. 2018.<br /> <br /> *王佐良 Wang Zuoliang.翻译：思考与试笔[Translation: Thinking and Writing]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社 [Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]. 1989.<br /> <br /> *许海燕,孙卫红.杨译本文化负载词的翻译——以《从百草园到三味书屋》为例[On C-E Translation of Culture-loaded Words by Yang Xianyi—A Case Study of From ''Hundred-plant Garden to Three-flavor Study''].陇东学院学报[Journal of Longdong University]. 2012.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲 Xu Yuanchong.翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation]. 北京：五洲传播出版社[China Intercontinental Press]. 1984. <br /> <br /> *许渊冲Xuan Yuanchong.直译与意译[Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 上海外国语学院学报[Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages]. 1980.<br /> <br /> ='''Document Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==<br /> <br /> On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County<br /> <br /> Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 公文翻译 苍南县 对外开放 日本 韩国<br /> <br /> ==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===<br /> <br /> The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.<br /> <br /> In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.<br /> <br /> To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.<br /> <br /> The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:<br /> <br /> First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.<br /> <br /> Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.<br /> <br /> Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.<br /> Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.<br /> <br /> ==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===<br /> <br /> Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> '''1. Details and Accurate'''<br /> <br /> As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.<br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”<br /> <br /> '''2. Precise and Compact'''<br /> <br /> The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”<br /> <br /> '''3. Programmed and Standardized'''<br /> <br /> The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.<br /> Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.<br /> <br /> ==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===<br /> <br /> Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.<br /> <br /> If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:<br /> <br /> 1. Detailed Comparison of Types<br /> <br /> In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.<br /> For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.<br /> <br /> 2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters<br /> <br /> There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于&lt;苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告&gt;的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.<br /> <br /> 3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning<br /> <br /> Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.<br /> <br /> For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于&lt;苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告&gt;的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”<br /> <br /> There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===<br /> <br /> Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.<br /> <br /> Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:<br /> <br /> 1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul<br /> <br /> Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.<br /> <br /> For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号 王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號 王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.<br /> <br /> 2. The Usage of Refined Language<br /> <br /> In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.<br /> <br /> For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”<br /> <br /> 3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning<br /> <br /> Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.<br /> <br /> For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===<br /> <br /> Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .<br /> <br /> The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Ziqi LIU. The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation：A Case Study of the Translation of Shipbuilding English[J]. CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION,2019,1(3).<br /> <br /> [2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).<br /> <br /> [3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.<br /> <br /> [4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003. <br /> <br /> [5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.<br /> <br /> [6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.<br /> <br /> [7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.<br /> <br /> [8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.<br /> <br /> [9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.<br /> <br /> [10]孙慧. 产业竞争力与区域经济增长[D].苏州大学,2006.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part illustrates translation difficulties of English long sentences by making contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the translation principles for English long sentences from the perspective of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, division, embedding and synthesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods<br /> <br /> ===英语长句翻译过程及翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分分析了造成翻译英语长句困难的原因，即英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分运用目的论阐述了翻译英语长句的原则，即目的原则，连贯原则和忠实原则三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、包孕法和综合法。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法<br /> <br /> ===1.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===<br /> <br /> The existence of long English sentences are usually caused by three elements. The first one is postmodifier, the second is the large number of joint components, the third one is the complex structure of long sentences. In general, long English sentences are more common in the literary text, discussion text and technical text (Wang, 2010 124).English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.(Wang, 2010 124)<br /> <br /> The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:<br /> <br /> (1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.<br /> <br /> (2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.<br /> <br /> (3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.<br /> <br /> (4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Translation difficulties of English long sentences===<br /> <br /> The difficulties of translation are mainly caused by the differences between the source language and target language. English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture. (Jiang, 2019, 62-65)<br /> <br /> ===2.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===<br /> <br /> English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis (Lian, 2010 73). Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia, 2002 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses (Jia, 2002 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible (Jia, 2002 101).<br /> <br /> Example 1: <br /> <br /> ST: Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through. <br /> <br /> TT: 人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。<br /> <br /> Analysis: In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth. <br /> <br /> ===2.2Static language vs. dynamic language===<br /> <br /> English is static language and Chinese is dynamic language. The reason why English is a static language is that nouns and prepositions are frequently used and predominate in English. In English sentences, there can only be one predicate verb and other action words can only be nominal verbs. Therefore, nominalization has become a common phenomenon in English. (Wang, 2004 5) Prepositions are used to before nouns and noun phrases. They have no morphological changes and are very flexible in use. Therefore, the frequency of using prepositions in English is very high and the number of prepositions far exceeds that in Chinese. When translating Chinese to English, an important way to make the target text conform to the expression of English is to pay attention to the application of English prepositions. Since Chinese is parataxis language, verbs have no morphological changes, and the use of verbs makes the language more vivid, so verbs are frequently used in Chinese. In addition to a large number of verb-object structures, Chinese sentences can be more dynamic by using a series of verbs. In English-Chinese translation, we must pay attention to the conversion between static and dynamic. (Jiang, 2019 12:62-65)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST:This month, when earthquakes rocked Southern California on back-to-back days, it was a visceral reminder that we may one day experience the “Big One”, a quake with the power to kill and destroy.<br /> <br /> TT:本月南加州连遭地震，人们本能地联想到，我们某天可能会经历“一次大的”具有杀伤力和破坏力的地震。<br /> <br /> Analysis: The noun “reminder” is translated into a verb “联想”, which is a transformation from static language to dynamic language.<br /> <br /> ===2.3Passive voice vs. active voice===<br /> <br /> Although both English and Chinese have active voice and passive voice, the frequency of English passive voice is much higher than that of Chinese, which is also one of the characteristics that distinguishes English from Chinese. Especially in English scientific technical text, the passive voice is much more used, almost becoming a expression habit, because the passive sentence does not have to point out the actor but highlight the target, which is more objective(Zhu 2004, 94). In English-Chinese translation, we must grasp this difference in language, so as to make the translation conform to the expression habit of the target language. (Zhu 2004, 94)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST: At the heart of the system--known as the multi-lateral trading system--are the WTO’s agreements, negotiated and signed by a large majority of the world’s trading nations, and ratified in their parliaments.<br /> <br /> TT: 世界贸易组织的核心--多边贸易体系--是世界上大多数贸易国经协商谈判并签署的多个协议, 这些协议同时也经过成员国议会批准。<br /> <br /> Analysis: The sentence of the source text is passive, “negotiated”, “signed” and “ratified” are passive in meaning, while Chinese sentence was translated into active, “协商”, “谈判”, “签署” are verbs in active verb.<br /> <br /> ===3.Translation principles for English long sentences===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was put forward by Hans Vermeer, an outstanding contributor to the translation theory of the German functional school. Different from the traditional equivalence theory, Skopos theory is based on behaviorism and proposes that translation is a purposeful activity(Zhang, 2004 35). The purpose of translation determines the translation method(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984). According to teleology, translators should follow three general principles in the process of translation: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule(Liu, 2009 378).<br /> <br /> Of the three principles, the skopos rule is the most important. The “skopos” can be the translatorss purpose, the communicative purpose of the target text or the purpose to be achieved by using a particular translation method. It usually refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, the communicative function of the target text for the target reader in the socio-cultural context of the target text (Venuti, 2001). Vermeer emphasizes that translation occurs in a cultural context, and translation is not a corresponding conversion of language due to the differences between cultures. The translator should not only accurately understand and interpret the author’s intention, but also make the translation acceptable to readers(Vermeer, 1989).<br /> <br /> Coherence rule refers to the fact that the target text must achieve intratextual coherence, making readers to understand and make sense in the communicative context of the target culture and target text. The fidelity rule means that the original text should be intertextually coherent, which is equivalent to being faithful to the original text in other translation theories. And the degree and form of fidelity to the original text depend on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the original text. According to Skopos theory, the first one that all translations should follow is skopos rule, coherence and fidelity are subordinate to it. And fidelity is subordinate to coherence (Nord, 2001 32). There are many differences between English and Chinese in thinking and expression, and translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. Therefore, translators must not ignore the communicative purpose of translation. Guided by skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, and based on the full analysis of the original text, the most appropriate strategies can be chosen to deal with specific long English sentences with the communicative purpose of the target text (Nord, 2001 32).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. Translation process of English long sentences===<br /> <br /> Bell divided the cognitive process of translation into 3steps: first, analyze the semantic meaning and grammar of the source language as a universal representation, and then synthesize and reconstruct it to form a translation (Bell, 1991 5). This is also the case with the translation of long sentences, and the analysis of English long sentences is the first step. Since English long sentences focus on the expression of form, the basic methods of analyzing Long sentences based on characteristics are as follows: first understand the meaning of the sentence, analyze the grammatical structure of the long sentence, extract the main sentence, and then analyze the branches of the sentence. Finally, dividing long sentences according to the meaning group. (Bell, 1991 5) <br /> <br /> <br /> As for the translation process from a macro point of view, first, the translator used some translation tools to look up new words and polysemous words. Then the translator began to translate for the first time, aiming to get a faithful text, and did not add any subjective guess to prevent the misunderstanding and inaccurate translation. In the second translation, the translator began to check the wrong words, as well as inappropriate points, and combined the language features of the text, which aimed to achieve coherent and intelligible. Finally, in the third translation, the translator got rid of the source language, and only read the target language to check whether it conformed to the reading habits and thinking modes of Chinese readers. If not, the translator would revise inappropriate sentences from the perspective of the target readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> As for the translation steps from micro point of view, it can be divided into five steps: Find the main body of the sentence; Make clear the relationship between each modifier and the main sentence; Divide long sentences into several parts according to the expression requirements;Translate each part one by one; Adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits.<br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST: It has a mobile payments system that has been widely adopted in China, which allows people to shop，play games，pay utility bills and order meal deliveries all from within the app.<br /> <br /> To analyze and translate this sentence, the most important is to find the main structure. It's easy to find the main body of this sentence is “It has a mobile payments system”. And second it is necessary to analyze the relationship between the modifiers and the main components of the sentence. “That has been widely adopted in China” is a post-positive attributive clause to modify the object “mobile payments system”, and “which allows…within the app” is a non-restrictive attributive clause to further explain the “system”, making readers know more about the target. Third, divide it into several parts according to the meaning and expression requirements. So this sentence can be divided three parts: the main body “It has a mobile payments system” is one part; and the two modifiers “that has been widely adopted in China” and “which allows … within the app” are the other two parts. Forth, translate every part: “它有一个移动支付系统”; “在中国得到广泛应用”; “让人们在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”. Finally, adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits. So the original sentence could be translated into: “它的移动支付系统在中国得到了下广泛应用，人们可以在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”.<br /> <br /> ===5.Translation strategies for English long sentences===<br /> <br /> ===5.1Liner translation===<br /> <br /> When the narrative level of English long sentences is basically the same as that of Chinese, that is, the sentences are narrated according to the time sequence or internal logic of the action, which is consistent with the expression habit of Chinese, and can be translated into Chinese in the same order as the original English. (Zeng 2010, 149-150)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> <br /> ST: They learned with stupefaction that there is another aspect from which human action might be viewed than that of good and bad, of fair and unfair, of just and unjust. In the course of social events there prevails a regularity of phenomena to which man must adjust his actions if he wishes to succeed. <br /> <br /> TT: 另一方面，他们茫然地想要了解到人类的哪些行为可以被看作是好的和坏的，公平的和不公平的，公正的和不公正的。在社会事件的过程中普遍存在着规律的现象，如果他希望成功，必须调整他的行动。 <br /> <br /> Analysis: There is an object clause in the first sentence. In the process of translation, the sentence can be simply translated in accordance with the order of the composition of the sentence. The translation is natural to read and can express the meaning of the original text by using liner translation.<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> <br /> ST: The joy and the tedium of labor are psychological phenomena which influence neither the individual’s subjective valuation of the disutility and the mediate gratification of labor nor the price paid for labor on the market. <br /> <br /> TT: 劳动的快乐或厌恶都是心理现象，既不影响个人对于劳动负效用和报酬的主观评价也不影响市场上的劳动力价格。 <br /> <br /> Analysis: Although this sentence has both an attributive clause and “neither... nor...” structure with a large number of vocabulary, but its logical thinking, sentence structure and temporal and spatial order are consistent with Chinese habits. Therefore, we can translate it by using the liner translation method.<br /> <br /> ===5.2 Reorganization translation=== <br /> <br /> Reorganization is a way of changing the order of the original text, pushing forward from behind or from the middle. English is hypotaxis language, while Chinese is parataxis language. (Lian, 2010 73) In terms of word order, English pays attention to the use of various conjunctions, such as relation words, conjunctions, prepositions, etc., to express the logical relations among them. Chinese, on the other hand, is used to connecting words with logical relations. The logic of long sentences in Scientific English is often quite different from that in Chinese, sometimes even the opposite. According to the expression habits of Chinese, the word order can be adjusted by means of reverse translation, so as to make the translation expression standard and easy to be understood and accepted by readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> <br /> ST: No technological improvement would have been possible if the additional capital goods required for the practical utilization of new inventions had not previously been made available by saving. <br /> <br /> TT: 实际利用新发明需要额外资本，如果以前没有通过储蓄获得这些额外资本, 就不可能有技术改进。<br /> <br /> Analysis: The “if-” clause contains a post-positive attributive “required for the practical utilization of new inventions”, which makes the clause look very complicated, if translated according to the word order, it would be misunderstood. Therefore, in order to better translate the sentence, the translator can reorganize the structure of the clause in the process of translation, and then translate the main sentence after a clear explanation, so that the meaning of the translated sentence is relatively clear.<br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> <br /> ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power. <br /> <br /> TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。<br /> <br /> Analysis: In this sentence, “It” is the formal subject, and the real subject is “to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School”. Therefore, we should follow the Chinese expression habit and reorganize the sentences before translating them.<br /> <br /> ===5.3Division===<br /> <br /> The so-called division in translation means separating the different parts of English sentences into a single component of Chinese, such as word group, phrases, sentences and even independent sentences (Wang, 2009 144). There are great differences between English and Chinese in syntax. English sentences are long, verbs are few, and balance is stressed, while Chinese is short, verbs are more, and symmetry is stressed. Therefore, when translating long English sentences, it is impossible to translate every sentence into a Chinese sentence, otherwise, the translation will appear bloated and stiff. In English, long sentences are mainly composed of compound and subordinate clauses. According to the habit of using short sentences in Chinese, sometimes the clauses or phrases in the original sentence can be translated separately, and the original sentence can be divided into two or more sentences, so as to make the translation clear and accurately. (Wang, 2009 144)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 9: <br /> <br /> ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power. <br /> <br /> TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。 <br /> <br /> Analysis: In this sentence, “according to which ... money’s purchasing power” is not a independent sentence, but for the easy understanding to the meaning this part was translated into another complete sentence by adding and deleting some words.<br /> <br /> ===5.4 Embedding===<br /> <br /> Embedding means transforming the post modifiers of the center word in the source text into the premodifiers in the target text, which is suitable for the translation of long sentences with many post-modifiers and strong sense of sentence compactness(Liu, 1998 191).<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> <br /> ST: What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences. <br /> <br /> TT: 使我们走到一起的，是我们有超越这些分歧的共同利益。 <br /> <br /> Analysis: In this sentence, “which transcend those differences” is a attributive clause to modify the antecedent “common interests”. If we translate it according to the English word order, it must be tedious and difficult to understand. Therefore, we can use insertion to put the clause before the main word, which will be simple and easy to understand.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> <br /> ST: This refined playing must not be confused with the simple games of children which are merely pleasure-producing.<br /> <br /> TT: 这细化的游戏一定不要和儿童仅仅为了快乐的简单游戏混淆。 <br /> <br /> Analysis: The post-positive attributive “which..” is a modifier used to explain “the simple games of children”. In order to make the sentence structure more compact, smooth and coherent, the modifier needs to be put before the noun “game”. This method is often used in the translation of attributive clauses or post-positive attributives in English.<br /> <br /> ===5.5 Synthesis===<br /> <br /> Synthesis means to use the above methods to translate long English sentences. In fact, when translating long English sentences, it is rare to adopt only one translation method, and it is often necessary to combine several translation methods. The key to the synthesis method is to adjust the structure of the original text flexibly on the basis of accurate understanding of the original text, and to pursue the spirit likeness rather than the appearance likeness when expressing in Chinese (Jiang, 2019,11:62-65).<br /> <br /> Example12:<br /> <br /> ST: For all of our complaints about contemporary air- ports and flying, it might be a comfort to remember that thanks to the little Pacific island nation of Fiji, we are actually getting to our destinations faster and more safely than ever before. <br /> <br /> TT: 对于如今的机场和乘机体验，尽管我们有诸多抱怨，但也多亏了斐济这个太平洋岛国，我们飞抵目的地已变得更快更安全，想到这一点，或许会让我们心里又感宽慰不少.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The main body of this sentence is “it might be a comfort”, among which “it”, is the formal subject, and “to remember that…ever before” is the real subject. We can not find such a sentence structure in Chinese. So in order to make the translation more authentic, the sentence order must be changed. Based on the understanding of the source text, it is appropriate to adopt both liner method and reorganization method to translate. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> <br /> [1]Bell, R.T. (1991). ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> [2]Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained'' . Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Reiss, Katharina &amp; Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' . Tubingen: Walter de Gruyter Press.<br /> <br /> [4]Venuti, L. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' . London: London and New York Routledge.<br /> <br /> [5]Vermeer, Hans J. (1989). ''Didactics of Translation. in Baker, Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies'' . London: London and New York Routledge.<br /> <br /> [6]Jia Dejiang贾德江. (2002). 英汉语对比研究与翻译 [Contrastive Study and Translation of English and Chinese].''国防科技大学出版社'' Changsha: NUDT Press<br /> <br /> [7]Jiang Yuqin蒋玉琴. (2019). 从英汉对比角度解析英语长句的翻译 [Translation of English Long Sentences into Chinese: a Contrastive Study]. ''宜春学院学报'' Journal of Yichun University (11) 62-65.<br /> <br /> [8]Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. ''高等教育出版社'' Beijing Higher Education Press<br /> <br /> [9]Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1998). 文体与翻译 [English Varieties and Translation]. ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation<br /> <br /> [10]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. ''武汉大学出版社'' Wuhan: Wuhan University Press<br /> <br /> [11]Wang Enmian王恩冕. (2009). 大学英汉翻译教程 [A College Textbook on English-Chinese Translation]. ''对外经济贸易大学出版社'' Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press<br /> <br /> [12]Wang Shuwen王述文. (2010). 综合汉英翻译教程 [A Comprehensive Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: National Defence Industry Press国防工业出版社.<br /> <br /> [13]Wang Wuxing王武兴. (2004). 英汉互译指导与篇章翻译 [A Guide to Essay Translation from Chinese into English and Vise Versa]. ''朝华出版社'' Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers<br /> <br /> [14]Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法 [Skopos Theory and Translation Methods]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (1) 35-37.<br /> <br /> [15]Zhu Wei朱微. (2004). 汉英翻译教程 [A Textbook of Chinese-English Translation]. ''重庆大学出版社'' Chongqing: Chongqing University Press.<br /> --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==<br /> <br /> ==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==4.1Cross-cultural communication==<br /> <br /> ==4.2Attaching great importance to form==<br /> <br /> ==4.3Clearing language logic==<br /> <br /> ===5.The process of translating long English sentences===<br /> <br /> ===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===<br /> <br /> ==6.1Liner translation==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==6.2Reorganization translation=<br /> <br /> ==6.3Splitting translation==<br /> <br /> ==6.4Synthesis==<br /> <br /> ==6.5Insertion==<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 MTI 英语口译 ==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. The translation quality of news headlines that serve as the eye of news, directly affects the effectiveness of its dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions and translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward corresponding translation strategies, aiming at retaining the conciseness of news and realizing dissemination and social value of news.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> News headlines translation; Skopos theory; Translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下中英新闻标题翻译研究<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===I. Introduction===<br /> With the continuous development of culture and economy, news reporting is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet, or newspapers and magazines to keep abreast of current events. But thousands of pieces of news and the information they carry may confuse us, because we are in a world where massive information is flowing nonstop. There is no doubt that some news has been omitted or even ignored. Therefore, a clear-cut and intriguing headline is of great importance and can be considered as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)<br /> <br /> Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are expected to be vivid and eye-catching in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, translators must learn how to effectively extract and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it cater to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy brought about by the reform and opening-up policy and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what translators should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)<br /> <br /> There are many studies about E-C news translation and news headline translation. However, research on Chinese-English news headlines translation is very few. According to statistics from CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), there are only two pages of discussion on Chinese-English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is designed to provide further exploration and reference in the area.<br /> <br /> As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper illustrates the development and three rules of Skopos theory. Then it discusses the features and functions of news headlines. Later, the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===II. Overview of the Skopos Theory ===<br /> ====2.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book ''Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism'', which formed the early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss took the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that the function of texts should be considered when translating.<br /> <br /> The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argued that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has its own purposes which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)<br /> <br /> For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action to which some of the other forms of translational action may relate. Every translation is directed at an intended audience since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.<br /> <br /> Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ==== <br /> There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Skopos Rule=====<br /> The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29).<br /> <br /> Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41). <br /> <br /> According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are meant to achieve the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means&quot;.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Coherence Rule=====<br /> The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) It implies that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====<br /> Apart from the &quot;intratextual coherence&quot;, there is another intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text. It is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. That means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)<br /> <br /> In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and that any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)<br /> <br /> Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationships between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and is included to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity of the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Summary ====<br /> This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, laying a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headlines are to intrigue readers and convey information to them. Therefore, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.（Wang Chi, 2013: 33-34）<br /> <br /> ===III. Overview of News Headlines===<br /> A headline is an essential part of news. So, it is important for translators to know the features and functions of news headlines. (Liu Yunxi, 2018: 123-125) The previous chapter introduces the theoretical framework of Skopos theory, which lay a foundation for the practical translation of Chinese news headlines. In this chapter, the author will discuss features and functions of news headlines, in order to search for some strategies for the Chinese-English translation of news headlines. <br /> <br /> ==== 3.1 Definition of News and News Headlines==== <br /> News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen. It is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and share ideas and information.<br /> <br /> News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, gives essential information about, or interests readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Features of News Headlines==== <br /> As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze the features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture, and structure.<br /> <br /> ===== 3.2.1 Grammatical Features===== <br /> <br /> 3.2.1.1 Lexical Feature<br /> <br /> a. Midget words<br /> <br /> A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words. <br /> <br /> [1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)<br /> <br /> [2]: 霹雳舞'''成'''巴黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)<br /> <br /> b. Numeral words<br /> <br /> Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news. <br /> <br /> [3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020) <br /> <br /> [4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)<br /> <br /> c. Abbreviations <br /> <br /> The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)<br /> <br /> [5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)<br /> <br /> [6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019) <br /> <br /> d. Vogue words <br /> <br /> “Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5) <br /> <br /> [7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)<br /> <br /> [8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)<br /> <br /> 3.2.1.2 Syntactical features<br /> <br /> a. Omission<br /> <br /> Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5) <br /> <br /> [9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)<br /> <br /> [10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)<br /> <br /> b. Voice<br /> <br /> Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.<br /> <br /> [11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)<br /> <br /> [12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)<br /> <br /> [13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)<br /> <br /> [14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)<br /> <br /> c. Tense<br /> <br /> One of the distinct features of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which saves the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tell the time of happening form. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)<br /> <br /> [15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)<br /> <br /> [16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====<br /> The figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, include metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc. They are aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)<br /> <br /> [1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020) <br /> <br /> [2] 美国加州火灾蔓延 居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)<br /> <br /> ===== 3.2.3 Cultural Features=====<br /> Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or region. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 44-45)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Structural Features =====<br /> To achieve the headline’s distinctiveness and simplicity, certain punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often seen in Chinese news headlines. However, the pursuit of using punctuation marks shares a common destination—to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks are, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)<br /> <br /> [1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题 (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)<br /> <br /> [2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Functions of News Headlines ====<br /> According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40) <br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Informative Function =====<br /> “The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Expressive Function =====<br /> “The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using commentary words or rhetoric devices.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.3 Aesthetic Function=====<br /> “This is a language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance, and contrast of sentences, clauses, and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations, and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.4 Vocative Function=====<br /> The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readers to act, think or feel, in fact, to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after finishing the news.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Summary ====<br /> This chapter discussed the features and functions of news headlines as well as differences between Chinese and English news headlines. It helps the author to seek for certain translation strategies and methods to retain the features and achieve the purposes of news headlines, which will be mentioned in the following chapter.<br /> <br /> ===IV. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===<br /> Many translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the Skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how the Skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed. (Luo Dan, 2012）<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Criteria of News Headline Translation ====<br /> According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity. <br /> <br /> ===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====<br /> Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）<br /> <br /> =====4.1.2 Readability =====<br /> Readability means the translation version is smooth as much as possible so that it is easier for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on ''Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness'' by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability are the first to be considered while consumers buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, the translation of news headlines should value readability. If the rule of fidelity concerns the content, then the rule of readability aims at the form. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）<br /> <br /> =====4.1.3Adaptability =====<br /> Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern in line with the features of news language. In other words, the style of the target language should be consistent with the source language. Style-maintaining is considered to be essential and important in translation, which is also true in the translation of news headlines. So, translators must deal with the grammar and diction of English seriously, and make sure the style of the original is mostly intact when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)<br /> <br /> ===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====<br /> Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation, is the most indispensable one. It requires that the translation of a news headline should be completed at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, the timeliness of news decides the rapidity of news translation, especially the headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Strategies and Methods of Chinese-English News Headlines Translation ====<br /> News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education systems, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation strategies and methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation methods including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103) <br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples: (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103) <br /> <br /> [1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减<br /> <br /> Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump<br /> (China Daily Aug 10, 2020)<br /> <br /> The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”was translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量” was “jeans sales”, and “骤减” “slump”, which is exactly an example of literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text. <br /> <br /> [2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批<br /> <br /> COVID antigen tests approved<br /> (China Daily Nov 10, 2020)<br /> <br /> This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒”, was translated into “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测”was translated into “antigen tests”and“获批”,“approved”. We can see that in this example, literal translation was used so that the form, style, and even the tense and voice of the source text are all retained.<br /> <br /> [3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园<br /> <br /> Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park <br /> (China Daily, Jan 17, 2018) <br /> <br /> This is an example of literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Free Translation =====<br /> Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103) <br /> <br /> [4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤<br /> <br /> Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions<br /> (China Daily, Oct 25, 2017) <br /> <br /> The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation. <br /> <br /> [5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争<br /> <br /> Foreign investors told to sharpen edge<br /> <br /> This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Amplification =====<br /> Most news headlines contain certain backgrounds that are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information that is rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory because the purpose is to convey effective information to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually are culture-loaded. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）<br /> <br /> [6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功<br /> <br /> China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight<br /> (China Daily, Dec 25, 2018) <br /> <br /> Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers. <br /> <br /> [7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”<br /> <br /> Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)<br /> <br /> “Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Omission =====<br /> Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)<br /> <br /> [8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城 共议国际汉语教师缺口问题<br /> <br /> Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage<br /> (China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021) <br /> <br /> In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news. <br /> <br /> [9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇<br /> <br /> Word of the year: pandemic<br /> <br /> (China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)<br /> <br /> In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Restructuring =====<br /> Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26) <br /> [10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善<br /> <br /> Marriages benefit from lockdown<br /> (China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)<br /> <br /> The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Adaptation =====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42) <br /> <br /> [11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”<br /> <br /> Changes to Uni Eligibility<br /> （People’s Daily, 2014）<br /> <br /> In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”<br /> <br /> [12] 中国女性主导财务决策<br /> <br /> 'She' to power wealth management<br /> (China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)<br /> <br /> Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Summary====<br /> This chapter introduces criteria, and strategies and methods of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can serve as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.<br /> <br /> ===V. Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies and methods adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation. <br /> <br /> News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.<br /> <br /> However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 02:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> * Munday, J. (2001). 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(2017). 翻译目的论研究综述[A Review of Translation Purpose Theory Research ].''现代交际'' Modern Intercourse (18):102-103.<br /> <br /> * Xu Mingwu 许明武. (2003)''新闻英语与翻译'' [News English and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> ==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.<br /> <br /> In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some &quot;Chinglish&quot; PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> <br /> Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods<br /> <br /> ===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。<br /> <br /> 随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。<br /> <br /> 笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> <br /> 公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Research Background====<br /> <br /> Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.<br /> <br /> There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text. <br /> <br /> With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.<br /> <br /> It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.<br /> <br /> Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)<br /> <br /> There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).<br /> <br /> ====Research Significance and Objectives====<br /> <br /> As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China.<br /> <br /> At the same time, some social problems, such as the Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.<br /> <br /> Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.<br /> <br /> ====Methodology====<br /> <br /> The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.<br /> <br /> ====Framework of this paper====<br /> <br /> This paper is divided into seven chapters.<br /> <br /> Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.<br /> <br /> Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.<br /> <br /> Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.<br /> <br /> Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.<br /> <br /> Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.<br /> <br /> Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.<br /> <br /> Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.<br /> <br /> ===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===<br /> <br /> ====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)<br /> <br /> 1. Content-based text<br /> <br /> This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.<br /> <br /> 2. Formal texts<br /> <br /> The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).<br /> If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.<br /> <br /> 3. Operative texts<br /> <br /> Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.<br /> <br /> 4. Audiovisual texts<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.<br /> <br /> ====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)<br /> <br /> 1. Expressive texts<br /> <br /> This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)<br /> <br /> 2. Informative texts<br /> <br /> The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.<br /> <br /> 3. Operative text<br /> <br /> The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).<br /> <br /> He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.<br /> <br /> 1. Expressive function<br /> <br /> Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.<br /> <br /> 2. Informative function<br /> <br /> The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.<br /> <br /> 3. Operative function<br /> <br /> This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.<br /> <br /> 4. Aesthetic function<br /> <br /> Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.<br /> <br /> 5. Interpersonal function<br /> <br /> The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.<br /> <br /> 6..Meta-linguistic function <br /> <br /> Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.<br /> <br /> Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)<br /> <br /> ====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====<br /> <br /> =====Similarities=====<br /> Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function. <br /> <br /> Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.<br /> <br /> =====Differences=====<br /> First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.<br /> <br /> Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Features of Public Service Advertisements===<br /> <br /> As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.<br /> <br /> ====Content Features====<br /> <br /> 1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.<br /> <br /> 2. Non-Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.<br /> <br /> 3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.<br /> <br /> 4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to<br /> more people.<br /> <br /> ====The Features of Text Forms====<br /> <br /> 1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.<br /> <br /> 2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.<br /> <br /> ====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====<br /> <br /> =====Similarities=====<br /> <br /> 1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.<br /> <br /> 2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.<br /> <br /> 3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.<br /> <br /> =====Differences=====<br /> <br /> 1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as &quot;forbidden&quot;, while English texts use more euphemistic words such as &quot;Please&quot;. When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.<br /> <br /> 2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.<br /> <br /> 3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。<br /> <br /> Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.<br /> <br /> Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as &quot;Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.<br /> <br /> 4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。 <br /> <br /> Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.<br /> <br /> The sentence contrasts the words &quot;酒&quot; and &quot;泪&quot; without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as &quot;Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===<br /> <br /> ====Operative Text====<br /> <br /> Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.<br /> <br /> Example 3: 爱心播散 希望萌芽<br /> <br /> Translation: Spread love Sow hope<br /> <br /> The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring. <br /> <br /> The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is &quot;萌芽&quot;, but the translation uses &quot;sow&quot; to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)<br /> In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> Example 4: 有你在，就是家。<br /> <br /> Translation：You bring me warmth of home.<br /> <br /> In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together. <br /> <br /> The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like &quot;bringing sb warmth&quot; to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)<br /> <br /> ====Informative Text====<br /> <br /> Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.<br /> <br /> Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！<br /> <br /> Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!<br /> <br /> Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。<br /> <br /> Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.<br /> If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any<br /> illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.<br /> <br /> ====Expressive Text====<br /> <br /> The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.<br /> <br /> Example 7：善行无痕 一种习惯的美丽<br /> <br /> Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.<br /> <br /> The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.<br /> <br /> Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with &quot;善行&quot; translated as &quot;Kindness&quot; and &quot;无痕&quot; as &quot;traceless&quot;.&quot;The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)<br /> <br /> Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）<br /> <br /> Translation: Save your lung, save your life.<br /> <br /> The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.<br /> <br /> ===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===<br /> <br /> ====Chinglish====<br /> Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.<br /> <br /> Example 9：小心地滑<br /> <br /> Misinterpretation: Foot Care.<br /> <br /> Suggested translation: Mind your step.<br /> <br /> The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;Chinglish&quot;. <br /> <br /> ====Grammatical errors====<br /> Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.<br /> <br /> Example 10：珍爱生命 远离毒品。<br /> <br /> Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.<br /> <br /> Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.<br /> <br /> The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.<br /> <br /> ====Inappropriate Use of Words====<br /> There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.<br /> <br /> Example 11：关爱残障人士<br /> <br /> Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.<br /> <br /> Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.<br /> <br /> The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word &quot;handicapped,&quot; which translates to &quot;the handicapped,&quot; is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to &quot;the disabled&quot;, relatively speaking.<br /> <br /> ====Redundancy====<br /> The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.<br /> <br /> Example12：一花一草皆生命 一枝一叶总关情<br /> <br /> Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.<br /> <br /> Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.<br /> <br /> The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.<br /> <br /> ===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===<br /> <br /> ====Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes &quot;literal translation&quot;from &quot;free translation&quot;); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes &quot;literal translation&quot; from &quot;word- for-word translation&quot;).(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.<br /> <br /> Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱 <br /> <br /> Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.<br /> <br /> The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that &quot;I&quot; means &quot;flower&quot;, which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.<br /> <br /> Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命<br /> <br /> Translation : To save water is to save life<br /> <br /> The original text translates &quot;conserve water&quot; and &quot;cherish life&quot; into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate &quot;conserve water&quot; with &quot;cherish life&quot; to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.<br /> <br /> ====Paraphrase====<br /> <br /> A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but &quot;uses the original text as a reference model&quot; and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.<br /> <br /> Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。<br /> <br /> Translation: Drive carefully! <br /> <br /> The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.<br /> <br /> Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。<br /> <br /> Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.<br /> <br /> The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.<br /> <br /> ====Borrowing Translation====<br /> <br /> A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.<br /> <br /> Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。<br /> <br /> Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.<br /> <br /> The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, &quot;Where there is a will, there is a way,&quot; to expand the publicity effect.<br /> <br /> Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音<br /> <br /> Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.<br /> <br /> The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics &quot;Let our voice be heard.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.<br /> <br /> According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.<br /> Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.<br /> <br /> Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.<br /> <br /> ===Limitation===<br /> <br /> In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential &amp; limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].<br /> <br /> Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].<br /> <br /> Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ]. <br /> <br /> Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].<br /> <br /> Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学 王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].<br /> <br /> Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].<br /> <br /> Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=116591 2020-12-20T12:58:11Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Xu Jing 许静 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> <br /> <br /> 在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> <br /> 杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，&quot;什么&quot;已经在标准形式中表达了&quot;what&quot;的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，&quot;什么&quot;已经在标准形式中表达了&quot;what&quot;的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br /> 胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br /> <br /> 胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> <br /> 文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> <br /> 很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br /> <br /> 读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br /> <br /> 作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> <br /> 我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> 文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br /> <br /> '''东站'''<br /> <br /> 在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> 但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 &quot;表演 &quot;过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 &quot;区级保护单位 &quot;的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br /> <br /> 今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> 请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 &quot;三十多年前 &quot;相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br /> <br /> 在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br /> <br /> 而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br /> 《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> <br /> 然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br /> <br /> 正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 &quot;文学英雄 &quot;的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 &quot;反抗文学 &quot;的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 &quot;文学英雄 &quot;的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 &quot;反抗文学 &quot;的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br /> <br /> 在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> <br /> 但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> <br /> 张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br /> <br /> 张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br /> <br /> 接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> <br /> 在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 &quot;土地 &quot;概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 &quot;农村知识分子 &quot;的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 &quot;纯文学 &quot;的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 &quot;土地 &quot;概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 &quot;农村知识分子 &quot;的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 &quot;纯文学 &quot;的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br /> <br /> 于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> 然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br /> <br /> 正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br /> <br /> 这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br /> <br /> 这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br /> <br /> 唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身&quot;定时&quot;的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br /> <br /> 换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br /> 小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。<br /> 小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> 通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> <br /> 而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br /> <br /> 因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br /> <br /> 因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br /> <br /> 因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br /> <br /> 显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> <br /> 村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br /> <br /> 然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> 然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br /> <br /> “”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br /> <br /> 刘新民<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''摘要<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br /> <br /> 张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br /> <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br /> <br /> 它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br /> <br /> 在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br /> <br /> 在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br /> <br /> 想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br /> <br /> 称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ]<br /> <br /> 很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> 但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br /> <br /> 毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 &quot;终极关怀 &quot;的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 &quot;原初之问 &quot;的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> 他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。<br /> 一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br /> <br /> 事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br /> <br /> 这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br /> <br /> 这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> 作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br /> <br /> 有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br /> <br /> 关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br /> <br /> '''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br /> <br /> ''谭景辉''<br /> <br /> 首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''谭景辉''<br /> <br /> 首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> 然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> 虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br /> <br /> 我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> [http://www.example.com link title]<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br /> 唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br /> <br /> 这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，&quot;冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情&quot;。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> 其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br /> <br /> '''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。&quot;Essay&quot;，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> 我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。&quot;故乡的野菜&quot;（周作人1925年）、&quot;听听那冷雨&quot;（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br /> --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。&quot;故乡的野菜&quot;（周作人1925年）、&quot;听听那冷雨&quot;（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> 在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br /> <br /> 当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br /> <br /> 当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> 在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> '''1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br /> <br /> 和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> <br /> 该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br /> <br /> 不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br /> <br /> 地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br /> 从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br /> 尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> 直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br /> 中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br /> 中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> 在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br /> “1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br /> 政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br /> <br /> 而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br /> 我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 划词翻译<br /> 20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br /> <br /> 我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br /> <br /> '''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br /> <br /> 这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br /> <br /> 这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br /> <br /> 在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> 余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br /> <br /> 决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br /> <br /> 因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br /> <br /> 有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br /> <br /> 决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br /> <br /> 因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br /> <br /> 有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br /> <br /> 王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> 3.潮流与趋势<br /> “中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br /> 它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br /> “文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br /> 但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br /> 这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.趋势<br /> 3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br /> 中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br /> <br /> “文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> 共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> - 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br /> - 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br /> - 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br /> - 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br /> <br /> - 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br /> <br /> 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br /> <br /> 从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> 老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br /> <br /> 2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> 施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'&quot;（施瓦茨，1996）。<br /> <br /> '''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br /> <br /> 因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br /> 第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> 1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br /> <br /> '''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br /> <br /> 巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> 这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> 6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br /> <br /> 正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样&quot;过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，&quot;相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。&quot;[...]她还提到，&quot;[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们&quot;。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br /> <br /> 综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> 综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br /> --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=116579 2020-12-20T12:49:28Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> <br /> <br /> 在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> <br /> 杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，&quot;什么&quot;已经在标准形式中表达了&quot;what&quot;的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，&quot;什么&quot;已经在标准形式中表达了&quot;what&quot;的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br /> 胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br /> <br /> 胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> <br /> 文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> <br /> 很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br /> <br /> 读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br /> <br /> 作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> <br /> 我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> 文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br /> <br /> '''东站'''<br /> <br /> 在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> 但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 &quot;表演 &quot;过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 &quot;区级保护单位 &quot;的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br /> <br /> 今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> 请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 &quot;三十多年前 &quot;相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br /> <br /> 在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br /> <br /> 而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br /> 《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> <br /> 然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br /> <br /> 正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 &quot;文学英雄 &quot;的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 &quot;反抗文学 &quot;的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br /> <br /> 在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> <br /> 但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> <br /> 张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br /> <br /> 张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br /> <br /> 接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> <br /> 在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 &quot;土地 &quot;概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 &quot;农村知识分子 &quot;的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 &quot;纯文学 &quot;的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 &quot;土地 &quot;概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 &quot;农村知识分子 &quot;的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 &quot;纯文学 &quot;的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br /> <br /> 于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> 然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br /> <br /> 正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br /> <br /> 这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br /> <br /> 这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br /> <br /> 唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身&quot;定时&quot;的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br /> <br /> 换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br /> 小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。<br /> 小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> 通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> <br /> 而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br /> <br /> 因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br /> <br /> 因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br /> <br /> 因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br /> <br /> 显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> <br /> 村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br /> <br /> 然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> 然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br /> <br /> “”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br /> <br /> 刘新民<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''摘要<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br /> <br /> 张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br /> <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br /> <br /> 它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br /> <br /> 在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br /> <br /> 在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br /> <br /> 想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br /> <br /> 称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ]<br /> <br /> 很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> 但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br /> <br /> 毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 &quot;终极关怀 &quot;的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 &quot;原初之问 &quot;的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> 他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。<br /> 一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br /> <br /> 事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br /> <br /> 这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br /> <br /> 这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> 作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br /> <br /> 有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br /> <br /> 关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br /> <br /> '''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br /> <br /> ''谭景辉''<br /> <br /> 首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''谭景辉''<br /> <br /> 首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> 然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> 虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br /> <br /> 我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> [http://www.example.com link title]<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br /> 唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br /> <br /> 这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，&quot;冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情&quot;。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> 其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br /> <br /> '''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。&quot;Essay&quot;，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> 我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。&quot;故乡的野菜&quot;（周作人1925年）、&quot;听听那冷雨&quot;（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br /> --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> 在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br /> <br /> 当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br /> <br /> 当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> 在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> '''1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br /> <br /> 和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> <br /> 该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br /> <br /> 不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br /> <br /> 地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br /> 从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br /> 尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> 直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br /> 中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br /> 中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> 在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br /> “1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br /> 政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br /> <br /> 而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br /> 我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 划词翻译<br /> 20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br /> <br /> 我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br /> <br /> '''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br /> <br /> 这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br /> <br /> 这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br /> <br /> 在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> 余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br /> <br /> 决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br /> <br /> 因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br /> <br /> 有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br /> <br /> 决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br /> <br /> 因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br /> <br /> 有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br /> <br /> 王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> 3.潮流与趋势<br /> “中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br /> 它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br /> “文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br /> 但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br /> 这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.趋势<br /> 3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br /> 中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br /> <br /> “文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> 共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> - 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br /> - 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br /> - 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br /> - 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br /> <br /> - 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br /> <br /> 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br /> <br /> 从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> 老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br /> <br /> 2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> 施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'&quot;（施瓦茨，1996）。<br /> <br /> '''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br /> <br /> 因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br /> 第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> 1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br /> <br /> '''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br /> <br /> 巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> 这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> 6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br /> <br /> 正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样&quot;过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，&quot;相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。&quot;[...]她还提到，&quot;[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们&quot;。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br /> <br /> 综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> 综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br /> --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115536 2020-12-19T09:32:51Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Conclusion */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, .&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). 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(2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> <br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> <br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> <br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> <br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot;. (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br /> <br /> This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br /> <br /> In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot;. (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br /> <br /> From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;. (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br /> <br /> In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> <br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> <br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> <br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> <br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> <br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br /> <br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> <br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by “with or in”, for example, &quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. The choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, for example, &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br /> <br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br /> <br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115535 2020-12-19T09:31:32Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, .&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). 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(2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> <br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> <br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> <br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> <br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot;. (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br /> <br /> This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br /> <br /> In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot;. (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br /> <br /> From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;. (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br /> <br /> In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> <br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> <br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> <br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> <br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> <br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br /> <br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> <br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by “with or in”, for example, &quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. The choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, for example, &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br /> <br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br /> <br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115534 2020-12-19T09:30:10Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, .&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). 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(2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> <br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> <br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> <br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> <br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot;. (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br /> <br /> This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br /> <br /> In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot;. (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br /> <br /> From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;. (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br /> <br /> In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> <br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> <br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> <br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> <br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> <br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br /> <br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> <br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by “with or in”, for example, &quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. The choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, for example, &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br /> <br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br /> <br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115527 2020-12-19T09:25:42Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, .&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing！！！学号专业 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. 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Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). 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[D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> <br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> <br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> <br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> <br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot;. (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br /> <br /> This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br /> <br /> In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot;. (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br /> <br /> From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;. (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br /> <br /> In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> <br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> <br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> <br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> <br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> <br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br /> <br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> <br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by “with or in”, for example, &quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. The choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, for example, &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br /> <br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br /> <br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115520 2020-12-19T09:21:52Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, .&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;.(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. 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(2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br /> <br /> This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br /> <br /> And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br /> With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br /> <br /> Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br /> <br /> Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br /> <br /> The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br /> <br /> It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br /> <br /> The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br /> <br /> The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br /> <br /> (2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br /> <br /> (3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br /> <br /> People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br /> <br /> (4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). <br /> <br /> According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> <br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br /> <br /> In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br /> <br /> 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br /> <br /> 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br /> <br /> 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br /> <br /> 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br /> <br /> For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known.<br /> <br /> Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br /> <br /> The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br /> <br /> Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br /> <br /> In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters.<br /> <br /> The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br /> <br /> Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br /> <br /> And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive.<br /> <br /> &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br /> <br /> As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br /> <br /> Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br /> <br /> It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled.<br /> <br /> Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br /> <br /> This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br /> <br /> For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br /> <br /> When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br /> <br /> So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br /> <br /> Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br /> <br /> Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br /> <br /> Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing！！！学号专业 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means &quot; purpose &quot;or &quot; goal &quot; in Greek. &quot;The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .&quot; The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;. Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why.&quot;(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like &quot;a, or, the&quot; will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> <br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> <br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> <br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> <br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot;. (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br /> <br /> This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br /> <br /> In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot;. (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br /> <br /> From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;. (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br /> <br /> In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> <br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> <br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> <br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> <br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> <br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> <br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> <br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> <br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br /> <br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> <br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. 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(2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by “with or in”, for example, &quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. The choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, for example, &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, for example, &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br /> <br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br /> <br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. 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(2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=114912 2020-12-18T14:41:44Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> =====1. Literature Review=====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> =====1. Domestication=====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> <br /> ======1.1. Annotation======<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ======1.2. Addition======<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.3. Omission======<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ======1.4. Substitution======<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> =====2. Foreignization=====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ======2.1. Transliteration======<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ======2.2. Literal Translation======<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. 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Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br /> <br /> 2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br /> <br /> 3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> 5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> 6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br /> <br /> 7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> 8. Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br /> <br /> 9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br /> <br /> 10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br /> <br /> 11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br /> <br /> 12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br /> <br /> 13. Chen Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br /> <br /> 14.Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br /> <br /> 16.Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br /> <br /> 17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br /> <br /> 18.Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. 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(2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences; 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). <br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13). <br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. 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Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below.<br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. [2013(3)：116-117]. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. [2017(4)：53-59]. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. [2013(11)：43-44]. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. [2010(3)：113-116]. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. [2012(10)：46-47]. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. [2014(3)：82-88]. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. (1983). 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=114869 2020-12-18T14:11:56Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> ====1. Literature Review====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> ====1. Domestication====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> ====1.1. Annotation====<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word &quot;的&quot; is usually added to the person's last name. &quot;上官家的&quot; refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses &quot;lady&quot; to explain &quot;的&quot; here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;八竿子拨拉不着&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Eight poles can’t be struck&quot;, which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of &quot;Baganzi&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Addition====<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom &quot;信马由缰&quot; refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ====1.3. Omission====<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of &quot;The Ballad of Garlic&quot;, Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ====1.4. Substitution====<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates &quot;亲娘&quot; into &quot;mother&quot;, this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with &quot;Mistress&quot; using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ====2. Foreignization====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Transliteration====<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as &quot;刘罗汉&quot;, and translate it into &quot;Arhat Liu&quot;. Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of &quot;Araht&quot;, so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. Literal Translation====<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, &quot;癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉&quot; is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work &quot;Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks&quot;, believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> There are &quot;third readers&quot; in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to &quot;fair readers&quot; who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of <br /> Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary]. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[ Contrastive Studies Of English And Chinese]. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[Studies of Practical Cultural Translation] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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(2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences; 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). <br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13). <br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below.<br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. 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[2017(4)：53-59]. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. [2013(11)：43-44]. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. [2010(3)：113-116]. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. [2012(10)：46-47]. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. [2014(3)：82-88]. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. (1983). 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=114832 2020-12-18T13:52:49Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> <br /> For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> ====1. Literature Review====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that &quot;Elegance&quot; is more important than &quot;Faithfulness&quot; and &quot;Expressiveness&quot;, and &quot;Faithfulness&quot; cannot be ignored by &quot;Elegance&quot;.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;infidelity&quot; in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the &quot;creative treason&quot; in translation from Howard's &quot;Big Breasts&quot; and &quot;Big Buttocks&quot;. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;treason&quot; when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as &quot;The Legend of Hulan River&quot;, &quot;Turbulence&quot;, &quot;Six Chapters of My Life&quot;, &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work &quot;Red Sorghum&quot; was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> ====1. Domestication====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> ====1.1. Annotation====<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Addition====<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ====1.3. Omission====<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ====1.4. Substitution====<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> ====2. Foreignization====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Transliteration====<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. Literal Translation====<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to &quot;go out&quot;.<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. 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Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of <br /> Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary]. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[ Contrastive Studies Of English And Chinese]. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[Studies of Practical Cultural Translation] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. 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''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences; 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). <br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13). <br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br /> have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett-packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;. On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot; is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br /> <br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below.<br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. [2013(3)：116-117]. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. [2017(4)：53-59]. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. [2013(11)：43-44]. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. [2010(3)：113-116]. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. [2012(10)：46-47]. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. [2014(3)：82-88]. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. (1983). 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> <br /> Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br /> &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated into &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion.&quot;(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> &quot;A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.&quot;--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br /> <br /> It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br /> <br /> Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br /> he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=114520 2020-12-18T09:27:07Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br /> <br /> Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br /> <br /> The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br /> <br /> Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br /> <br /> While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br /> <br /> Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> <br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> <br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> <br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br /> <br /> The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br /> <br /> Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br /> <br /> On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br /> <br /> The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br /> <br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br /> --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> ====1. Literature Review====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies .<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to &quot;bring the original author into the target language culture&quot;, while foreignization is to &quot;accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context&quot;(2004:20). <br /> <br /> It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br /> <br /> In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br /> ====1. Domestication====<br /> To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br /> ====1.1. Annotation====<br /> In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br /> <br /> Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br /> <br /> In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br /> <br /> There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br /> <br /> Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br /> <br /> “八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating &quot;Baganzi&quot;. <br /> <br /> The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Addition====<br /> It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br /> <br /> ====1.3. Omission====<br /> There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br /> <br /> E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br /> <br /> Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br /> <br /> ====1.4. Substitution====<br /> Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br /> <br /> The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br /> <br /> Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br /> <br /> ====2. Foreignization====<br /> To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Transliteration====<br /> In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br /> <br /> However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br /> <br /> There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br /> <br /> “清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. Literal Translation====<br /> In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br /> <br /> E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br /> <br /> Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br /> <br /> In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br /> <br /> In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br /> <br /> The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br /> <br /> However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br /> <br /> Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br /> <br /> Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br /> <br /> However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br /> <br /> Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br /> <br /> Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br /> <br /> There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br /> <br /> Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br /> <br /> The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br /> <br /> *Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br /> <br /> *Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br /> <br /> *Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br /> <br /> *Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Cao Shunying&amp;Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br /> <br /> *Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br /> <br /> *Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br /> <br /> *Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br /> <br /> *Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br /> <br /> *Liu Yunhong&amp;Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br /> <br /> *Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br /> <br /> *Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br /> <br /> *Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br /> <br /> *Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br /> <br /> *Wen Jun&amp;Wang Xiaochuan&amp;Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping&amp;Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br /> <br /> *Yan Yixun&amp;Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br /> <br /> *Yin Lingwei&amp;Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). <br /> <br /> In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br /> <br /> Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br /> <br /> Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br /> <br /> Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br /> <br /> Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br /> <br /> Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br /> <br /> These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br /> <br /> Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147). <br /> <br /> However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br /> <br /> As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br /> <br /> Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br /> <br /> For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br /> <br /> For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br /> <br /> For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br /> <br /> For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br /> <br /> Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> ====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;.<br /> <br /> Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br /> <br /> In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> However, most scholars believe that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br /> <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;. In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br /> <br /> According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> ''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as &quot;丢了西瓜捡芝麻&quot; (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean &quot;因小失大&quot; (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as &quot;芝麻开花—节节高&quot; (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br /> <br /> In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called &quot;abbreviation&quot;. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空（all is empty）&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br /> <br /> The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, &quot;竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)&quot; omits the latter part &quot;一场空 (all is empty)&quot;. Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as &quot;外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)&quot;. In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen &amp; Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br /> <br /> Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot;<br /> <br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domesticationg transaltion&quot;, and the second strategy as &quot;foreignizing transaltion&quot;. <br /> <br /> In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br /> <br /> Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan &amp; Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br /> <br /> In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br /> <br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br /> <br /> The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> <br /> For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br /> <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84)<br /> <br /> In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺&quot;、&quot;狗腿子&quot;、&quot;狗仗人势&quot;、&quot;狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br /> <br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br /> <br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br /> <br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> <br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br /> <br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai,1986)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang &amp; Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br /> <br /> However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of <br /> Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary]. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[ Contrastive Studies Of English And Chinese]. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[Studies of Practical Cultural Translation] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br /> <br /> Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br /> <br /> The meaning of &quot;三长两短&quot; cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into &quot;three long and two short things&quot;, the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br /> <br /> 她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br /> <br /> Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br /> <br /> The image of &quot;碰一鼻子灰&quot; is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br /> <br /> 运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br /> <br /> The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br /> <br /> 等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br /> <br /> Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br /> <br /> Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br /> <br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words &quot;traitor, traitor&quot; until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br /> <br /> The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br /> <br /> English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages ​​and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> “他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br /> <br /> Translation: &quot;Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him&quot;.<br /> <br /> 咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br /> <br /> 特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br /> <br /> Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br /> <br /> Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of &quot;跑了和尚跑不了庙&quot;, &quot;竹篮子打水一场空&quot; and &quot;架起了多少的空中楼阁&quot; convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br /> <br /> 匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br /> <br /> Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. &quot;Although I have eyes,&quot; he exclaimed, &quot;I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!&quot; (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of &quot;有眼不识泰山&quot;. As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br /> <br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br /> <br /> For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br /> <br /> Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br /> <br /> In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its &quot;equivalence&quot; in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br /> <br /> Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. 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(2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 03-05.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences; 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br /> <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot; (Newmark 2001, 41). <br /> <br /> According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br /> <br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place&quot;.Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13). <br /> <br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)&quot;.<br /> <br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br /> <br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br /> <br /> For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br /> <br /> In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br /> <br /> Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br /> <br /> A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br /> <br /> There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br /> <br /> The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br /> <br /> Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> <br /> Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below.<br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. [2013(3)：116-117]. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. [2017(4)：53-59]. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. [2013(11)：43-44]. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. [2010(3)：113-116]. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. [2012(10)：46-47]. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. [2014(3)：82-88]. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. (1983). 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that &quot;Chineseness&quot; in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br /> <br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持&quot;中国性&quot;===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br /> <br /> 本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> === Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br /> <br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness&quot;, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br /> Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身&quot;（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom &quot;望子成龙&quot; was translated into &quot;hope one’s children to become a dragon&quot;, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into &quot;hope one’s children will have a bright future&quot;, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word &quot;龙&quot;. This is what we said the loss of &quot;Chineseness&quot;, namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br /> <br /> For instance, the Chinese idiom &quot;三顾茅庐&quot;, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate &quot;三顾茅庐&quot; into &quot;repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or &quot;have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly&quot;, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the idioms like &quot;班门弄斧&quot; and &quot;卧薪尝胆&quot; are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;, &quot;苦海无边，回头是岸&quot;, and &quot;醍醐灌顶&quot;. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> Take &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot; (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like &quot;A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.&quot; and &quot;A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.&quot;; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br /> Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br /> <br /> Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. (Venuti, 1995,105) <br /> <br /> Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, &quot;The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text&quot;, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。&quot;(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into &quot; The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky&quot; [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced &quot;swan&quot;(天鹅) with &quot;goose&quot;(鹅), since the associative meanings of &quot;swan&quot; and &quot;goose&quot; are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br /> <br /> For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for &quot;癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃&quot;[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into &quot;A toad hankering for a tatste of swan&quot;(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br /> <br /> Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the &quot;Chineseness&quot; in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />  <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br /> <br /> The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br /> <br /> However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> *He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br /> <br /> *Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br /> <br /> *Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &amp;Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br /> <br /> *Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br /> <br /> *David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London &amp; New York:Routledge,1995:20<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. 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''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;space&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete that have been&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;inappropriate&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics&quot;哥哥&quot;&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;through&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;springing up&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;updating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;developing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;one after another&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;their&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;various ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;such&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;For example,&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;increasingly strong&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;them and their&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;transending&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;construction&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;during translating&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improved&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;also&lt;/span&gt;)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;following&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;expressions&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;with&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete above&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;contained&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;employing&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;observe&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;long&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;readers&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;delete a process&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;ways&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;manifest&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;conveys&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;add to&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5)<br /> <br /> Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br /> <br /> But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it &quot;刀板香&quot;. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> 片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br /> <br /> The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br /> <br /> Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br /> <br /> The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br /> <br /> The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273) <br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. 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Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=113505 2020-12-17T08:14:55Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt(Ge Haowen); Mo Yan’s works<br /> ===题目===<br /> 葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br /> <br /> Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br /> <br /> He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br /> <br /> Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br /> ====1.1. Literature Review====<br /> Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal &quot;Chinese Literature Today&quot; was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies .<br /> <br /> Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br /> <br /> Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br /> <br /> Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br /> <br /> In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br /> Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br /> <br /> Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br /> <br /> Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br /> <br /> Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br /> <br /> What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature. <br /> <br /> Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br /> <br /> Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br /> <br /> So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====3.1. Domestication====<br /> ====3.2. Foreignization====<br /> ===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. 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London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. 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(2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.&lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part.For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)).<br /> <br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. <br /> <br /> An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary (《辞海》) defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. <br /> <br /> In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually say the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Schleiermacher 1838/ 1963:47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995:19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, Domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.( Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）Eugene A. Nida, the advocator of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot; Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in The Translation of Linshu, which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be persisted in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them.<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Xiao luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.”Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal ChukelLiang，the master mind.”The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （4）那胡正卿心头“十五个吊桶打水——七上八下”（施耐庵《水浒全传》）Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. <br /> （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。（周而复《上海的旱晨》）His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight. <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries.<br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example:<br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。（周而复《上海的早晨》）Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84). <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。（《毛泽东选集》）Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”.<br /> Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning belongs to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. <br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Mr. Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap——pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood.<br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）(Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning.<br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;(Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126). The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content.<br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> ====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect.<br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。（Ling Li,2004,59）(Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not.<br /> <br /> ====4.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。(Yang &amp; Dai,1986) (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of <br /> Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br /> <br /> Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br /> <br /> Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br /> <br /> Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary]. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21<br /> <br /> Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[ Contrastive Studies Of English And Chinese]. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[Studies of Practical Cultural Translation] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br /> <br /> From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are &quot;aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign&quot;, and which he describes as being &quot;accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order&quot; (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br /> <br /> Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which &quot;the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him&quot; (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br /> <br /> As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an &quot;ethnodeviant pressure&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can &quot;register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of &quot;Realia&quot; of source language or &quot;Archaisms&quot; of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an &quot;alien reading experience&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20).<br /> <br /> ====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense transaltion. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte &amp; Biguenet ‚1992, 13).<br /> <br /> As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida ‚1993, 118). <br /> <br /> The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br /> <br /> Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as &quot;a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that &quot;the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts&quot; (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br /> <br /> People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br /> According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are &quot;concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage&quot; (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br /> <br /> In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is &quot;a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people&quot; (Hanks 2001, 908). <br /> <br /> As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means &quot;an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal&quot;. <br /> <br /> These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br /> In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: &quot;靠山吃山，靠水吃水&quot; (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), &quot;种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆&quot; (What goes around comes around.), &quot;一日之计在于晨&quot; (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, &quot;红运当头&quot; which means one has a good fortune, &quot;开门红&quot; which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, &quot;万事俱备，只欠东风&quot; comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br /> <br /> For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain &quot;佛&quot; (Buddha), &quot;庙&quot; (temple) and &quot;和尚&quot; (monk or bonze). For example, &quot;临时抱佛脚&quot; (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, &quot;放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot; (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃''南柯一梦''，口中犹骂，操贼不止。<br /> <br /> Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words “ traitor, traitor” until he had awoken from ''the empty dream''.<br /> <br /> This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use &quot;南柯一梦&quot; to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. Domestication is a means for translators to adjust differences. Domestication makes translations easy to understand and easy to read. It is popular among ordinary readers, but differences are discounted. If a novel wants to be popular, it must first have a readership, and the domestication strategy will find a foothold for the novel among the readers. Sometimes the differences in the original text are very obvious, but the translation of the different language form and content is preserved, and the translation becomes lengthy. In this case, the translator has to give up the original language form, to retain the content, and even to fully naturalize it. The difference in the Chinese idiom above is not very important. If the translator retains it regardless of everything, the translation will not be a waste of ink.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 一亿元<br /> ----<br /> 南柯一梦<br /> 一亿元<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> 主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结''秦晋之好''。<br /> <br /> Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter’ s hand in behalf of his son to ''band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times''.<br /> <br /> The Chinese historical idiom &quot;秦晋之好&quot; comes from a historical allusion. During the Spring and Autumn Period, Qin State and Jin State were two neighboring powers. The ruling groups of the two countries were intriguing and fighting for hegemony. The contradictions were sharp and sometimes people of the two countries were sent out to fight against each other. On the other hand, for the sake of their own interests, they sometimes united with each other, made use of each other, and even married each other to form a close family. Qin Mugong was one of the five hegemons, and his wife was the daughter of Jin Xiangong. Jin Wengong, the son of Jin Xiangong, was also one of the five hegemons of the Spring and Autumn Period. His wife, Wen Hao, was the daughter of Qin Mugong. Therefore, despite the contradictions between the Qin and Jin Dynasties, the fact that they were reunited with each other was still quite prominent in the relations between countries. Since the Qin and Jin dynasties united with marriages, later generations called the two marriages &quot;互结秦晋&quot;, or &quot;秦晋之好&quot;. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting &quot;band the two houses in marriage&quot; can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the latter part is deleted, it will be &quot;as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times&quot;. The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that &quot;秦晋之好&quot; lost its own meaning when it first appears in the novel. It should be acknowledged that Romulus's translation is a typical translation language, which seems to be somewhat lengthy because the translator has to work hard to deal with the relationship between the linguistic form of the idiom and the content of the foreignization. The translated language is superficially used in the target language, but it still has the characteristics of the original language. Therefore, in terms of language, foreignization translation is a mediation of differences.<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> (张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是''金枝玉叶''，你是何等人 ……” <br /> <br /> Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, &quot;Our brother is a prince of the blood, ''a jade leaf on a golden branch''. Who are you to …&quot;<br /> <br /> 梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃''金枝玉叶''，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”<br /> <br /> Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, &quot;Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is ''part of the royal family'', the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate&quot;.<br /> <br /> 耀骂曰: “曹都督乃''金枝玉叶''，安肯与反贼相见耶! ” <br /> <br /> Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:&quot; Field Marshal Cao ''belongs to the royal family''. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor&quot;. <br /> <br /> The interpretation of &quot;金枝玉叶&quot; in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in The Romance of the Three Kingdoms that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of &quot;金枝&quot; and &quot;玉叶&quot;. They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese's emphasis on &quot;Gold&quot; and &quot;Jade&quot;, the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom..<br /> <br /> 蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “''人无远虑，必有近忧''。子明之见深远。”<br /> <br /> Translation: Lu Meng responded:&quot; The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats&quot;. Sun Quan commented, &quot;''Improvidence invites danger''. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead&quot;.<br /> <br /> 子邓忠劝曰: “''小不忍则乱大谋''，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” <br /> <br /> Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, &quot;''Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans''. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty&quot;.<br /> <br /> The above two famous idioms are all from the Analects. In the different translations of The Analects, the translations of &quot;人无远虑，必有近忧&quot; and &quot;小不忍则乱大谋&quot; are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. Taking the style of the original work into account, Romulus spared no effort to differences and through the interpretation of domestication, the difference in the idiom was seamlessly integrated into the translated language. This shows that the author's situation is always like this, he can’t express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations of Wei Li and Luo Mushi, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. A comprehensive analysis of the data is shown. To treat different types of differences, the translator chooses his own mediation strategy according to the specific context. The analysis of the translation example shows the conditions of the translator's choice strategy. Although the strategy used by each kind of different tone is somewhat accidental, in general, the foreignization and domestication are more balanced, slightly tilted towards foreignization, indicating that the translator is trying to strike a balance between the two translation strategies. On the surface, it seems unorganized, and the freely used translation strategy reflects the essence of the different tune: The translator's choice is seemingly inconsistent and irregular, but it is based on a specific context.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In translation practice, it is impossible to adopt only one translation strategy, especially the idiom with strong cultural color. If the language expression habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural facsimile, excessive domestication or foreignization translation strategy is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and needs to be used interactively according to the actual situation. <br /> <br /> (1)Choosing a translation strategy according to the purpose <br /> <br /> In order to ease language and cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, &quot;lose one's face&quot; comes from &quot;丢面子&quot;. Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator’ s attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese historical idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as &quot;巧妇难为无米之炊&quot;, which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:&quot; Even the cleverest housewife can’t cook a meal without rice&quot;. And the British sinologist David Hawks translated it as &quot;Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour&quot;. Mr. Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br /> <br /> (2)Choosing a translation strategy based on content <br /> <br /> Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, &quot;熟能生巧&quot; can be directly translated as &quot;Practice makes perfect&quot;. When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the &quot;culture of source language&quot; with the &quot;culture of target language&quot;, and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as &quot;吃不了兜着走&quot;. Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as &quot;be in serious trouble&quot; according to its original meaning. <br /> <br /> (3)Combining the two strategies for translation in translation practice <br /> <br /> It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, &quot;三十六计，走为上策&quot;. If translators only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like &quot;Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away&quot;. Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is necessary to supplement the domestication translation like &quot;as you have no better choice&quot;. Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). &quot;Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens&quot;, in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot;, in André Lefevere (ed. &amp; trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen &amp; Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br /> <br /> *Schulte, Rainer &amp; Biguenet, John‚. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br /> <br /> *‚Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, ‚and Transla‚ing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press‚.<br /> <br /> *Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br /> <br /> *Shuttleworth, Mark &amp; Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(01) 40-44.<br /> <br /> *Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br /> <br /> *Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译''‚‚ Chinese Translators Journal ‚(03) 3-5.<br /> <br /> *Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences; 5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br /> As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot;. In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Literal Translation====<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Naturalization====<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br /> <br /> ====4.6 Foreignization====<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br /> <br /> [3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br /> <br /> [4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br /> <br /> [5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br /> <br /> [6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br /> <br /> [8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br /> <br /> [9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br /> <br /> [10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br /> <br /> [11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br /> <br /> [12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br /> <br /> [13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres,(Tim Dirks,2003,3.19) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada.(Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell） And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.(Newmark 2001, 40) In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress.These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. 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[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below.<br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> <br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Feng Li 冯丽. [2013(3)：116-117]. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. [2017(4)：53-59]. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究.<br /> <br /> Li Yi 李懿. [2013(11)：43-44]. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Hualing 吴华玲. [2010(3)：113-116]. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊.<br /> <br /> Wang Weiwei 王维维. [2012(10)：46-47]. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing 熊兵. [2014(3)：82-88]. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文.<br /> <br /> 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. (1983). 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br /> <br /> As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br /> <br /> Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br /> <br /> What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br /> <br /> Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> <br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br /> <br /> Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br /> <br /> As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br /> <br /> Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br /> <br /> While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br /> <br /> In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br /> <br /> The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br /> <br /> As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br /> <br /> In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br /> <br /> Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br /> <br /> Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br /> <br /> With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br /> <br /> First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br /> <br /> With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br /> <br /> A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br /> <br /> In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br /> <br /> Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br /> <br /> In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br /> <br /> It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br /> <br /> The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br /> <br /> In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br /> <br /> In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br /> <br /> To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br /> <br /> Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br /> <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> <br /> *Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> <br /> *Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> *Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> <br /> *Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> <br /> *Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br /> <br /> *Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br /> <br /> *Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br /> <br /> *Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br /> <br /> *Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br /> <br /> *Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jian &amp; Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273) <br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. &quot;Baidu Encyclopedia&quot;. https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112364 2020-12-14T09:26:32Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.1 Transliteration */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Schleiermacher 1838/ 1963:47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995:19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, Domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.( Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）Eugene A. Nida, the advocator of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot; Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in The Translation of Linshu, which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be persisted in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them.<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Xiao luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.”Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal ChukelLiang，the master mind.”The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （4）那胡正卿心头“十五个吊桶打水——七上八下”（施耐庵《水浒全传》）Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. <br /> （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。（周而复《上海的旱晨》）His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight. <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries.<br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example:<br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。（周而复《上海的早晨》）Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84). <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。（《毛泽东选集》）Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”.<br /> Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====3.3.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning belongs to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. <br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Mr. Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap——pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood.<br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）(Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning.<br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;(Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126). The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content.<br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect.<br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。（Ling Li,2004,59）(Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not.<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。(Yang &amp; Dai,1986) (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Translation; Chinese Idioms<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====The Origin and Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> =====Domestication=====<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> ====The Debates over Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Cultural Connotation of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Geographical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflectiing Historical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Custom Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Religious Culture====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. 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Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). 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(2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112361 2020-12-14T09:23:07Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.The methods of brand name translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Schleiermacher 1838/ 1963:47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995:19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, Domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.( Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）Eugene A. Nida, the advocator of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot; Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in The Translation of Linshu, which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be persisted in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them.<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Xiao luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.”Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal ChukelLiang，the master mind.”The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （4）那胡正卿心头“十五个吊桶打水——七上八下”（施耐庵《水浒全传》）Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. <br /> （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。（周而复《上海的旱晨》）His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight. <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries.<br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example:<br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。（周而复《上海的早晨》）Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84). <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。（《毛泽东选集》）Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”.<br /> Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====3.3.1.1 Literal Translation====<br /> Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning belongs to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. <br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi &amp; Dai Naidie,1986)<br /> （11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br /> （12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br /> <br /> The above three cases are translated by Mr. Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br /> In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as &quot;狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师&quot;, and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as &quot;every dog has its day.&quot; Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;狗戴帽子——装人&quot; is a taunt. It can be translated as &quot; A dog is wearing a cap——pretending to be a human being（an insult）.&quot; In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood.<br /> In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br /> Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）(Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.1 Free Translation====<br /> Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning.<br /> For example,<br /> （14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br /> （15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br /> （16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br /> （17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br /> While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning &quot;(Gao Yun &amp; Yu Jie, 2004, 126). The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content.<br /> For example,<br /> （18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br /> （19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br /> Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect.<br /> For example,<br /> （20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。（Ling Li,2004,59）(Rome was not built in a day.)<br /> （21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br /> （22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br /> When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, &quot;老王卖瓜——自卖自夸&quot; must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not.<br /> <br /> ====3.3.2.4 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。(Yang &amp; Dai,1986) (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br /> （24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br /> <br /> The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.<br /> <br /> To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br /> <br /> In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br /> <br /> The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br /> <br /> In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Translation; Chinese Idioms<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====The Origin and Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> =====Domestication=====<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> ====The Debates over Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Cultural Connotation of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Geographical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflectiing Historical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Custom Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Religious Culture====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. 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(2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); <br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. 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Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br /> [7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112350 2020-12-14T09:15:48Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Schleiermacher 1838/ 1963:47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995:19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, Domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.( Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）Eugene A. Nida, the advocator of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot; Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in The Translation of Linshu, which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be persisted in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them.<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Xiao luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.”Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal ChukelLiang，the master mind.”The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （4）那胡正卿心头“十五个吊桶打水——七上八下”（施耐庵《水浒全传》）Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. <br /> （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。（周而复《上海的旱晨》）His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight. <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries.<br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example:<br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。（周而复《上海的早晨》）Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84). <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。（《毛泽东选集》）Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”.<br /> Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Translation; Chinese Idioms<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====The Origin and Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> =====Domestication=====<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> ====The Debates over Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Cultural Connotation of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Geographical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflectiing Historical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Custom Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Religious Culture====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;. In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112335 2020-12-14T09:08:27Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 1. Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Schleiermacher 1838/ 1963:47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995:19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, Domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.( Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）Eugene A. Nida, the advocator of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot; Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in The Translation of Linshu, which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be persisted in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them.<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Xiao luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.”Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal ChukelLiang，the master mind.”The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （4）那胡正卿心头“十五个吊桶打水——七上八下”（施耐庵《水浒全传》）Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. <br /> （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。（周而复《上海的旱晨》）His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight. <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries.<br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example:<br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。（周而复《上海的早晨》）Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84). <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。（《毛泽东选集》）Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”.<br /> Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Translation; Chinese Idioms<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ====The Origin and Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> =====Domestication=====<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> ====The Discussison on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 The Cultural Connotation of Chinese Idioms=== <br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Geographical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflectiing Historical Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Custom Culture====<br /> <br /> ====Chinese Idioms Reflecting Religious Culture====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics (Victor Mair 2019). Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse (Ogilvy Ao Mei, 2017). Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3), (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. 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Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). 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(2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112310 2020-12-14T08:56:42Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan &amp; Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Schleiermacher 1838/ 1963:47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995:19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as &quot;domestication&quot;, and the second method as &quot;foreignization&quot;. In a word, Domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.( Mark Shuttleworth &amp; Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）Eugene A. Nida, the advocator of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that &quot;cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences.&quot; Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of &quot;sublimation&quot; in The Translation of Linshu, which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. On the contrary, &quot;foreignization&quot; requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of &quot;domestication&quot;, which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be persisted in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them.<br /> <br /> In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the &quot;middle point&quot; is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Xiao luan &amp; Feng Xuehua, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.”Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal ChukelLiang，the master mind.”The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （4）那胡正卿心头“十五个吊桶打水——七上八下”（施耐庵《水浒全传》）Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. <br /> （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。（周而复《上海的旱晨》）His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight. <br /> The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of &quot;fifteen buckets&quot; and &quot;seven up and eight down&quot;; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase &quot;in turmoil&quot;. Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. &quot;If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted&quot; (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br /> For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! <br /> （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br /> In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries.<br /> However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example:<br /> （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。（周而复《上海的早晨》）Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. <br /> This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into &quot;don't snarp and snarl at me&quot;, which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of &quot;狗咬吕洞宾&quot; is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs &quot;snarp&quot; and &quot;snarl&quot; to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text (Yang Hongwei &amp; Li Yadan,2004,84). <br /> （9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。（《毛泽东选集》）Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br /> A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”.<br /> Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Translation; Chinese Idioms<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics (Victor Mair 2019). Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse (Ogilvy Ao Mei, 2017). Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3), (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. 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Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). 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(2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112296 2020-12-14T08:48:30Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Domestication; Foreignization; Translation; Chinese Idioms<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics (Victor Mair 2019). Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse (Ogilvy Ao Mei, 2017). Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3), (Li Jianzi 2018).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [11]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [12]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [13]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112288 2020-12-14T08:44:22Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. 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Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> [11]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! &quot;Make up for Ever&quot; arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br /> <br /> [12]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br /> <br /> [13]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). &quot;Revlon&quot; in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). 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(2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112273 2020-12-14T08:33:02Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 摘要 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br /> <br /> The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, idiom, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of &quot;Cutting and Shortening Words&quot; in his The Main Ideas Of The Rhetoric; Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from &quot;shefu&quot; (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book A Study of Proverbs; and names such as &quot;riddle&quot;, &quot;proverb&quot;, &quot;abbreviation&quot;, &quot;idiom&quot;, &quot;witticism&quot; are listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot;。<br /> <br /> The name &quot;xiehou&quot; was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that &quot;the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou&quot; (a kind of poem with the style of &quot;xiehou&quot;). The word &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called &quot;Qiaoyu&quot;, &quot;Fangyu&quot; and &quot;Shiyu&quot; by the ancients and were more commonly known as &quot;Yaoyan&quot;.<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article &quot;Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs &quot;. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as &quot;argot&quot;, was called &quot; wind typeface &quot; in Tang Dynasty and &quot;Kaner&quot; or &quot;Kanzi&quot; in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; in his article. In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book &quot; The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric&quot; that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; used by the ancients, also known as &quot;cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu&quot;; the other is &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation. In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the &quot;original or formal xiehouyu&quot;, a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of &quot;xiehou&quot; in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as &quot;quotations&quot; according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name &quot;Xiehouyu&quot; should still be used without any change.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014,5-6）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> The English name of Xiehouyu is &quot;rest ending sayings&quot; or &quot;post-pause expressions&quot;. According to its structure, it is also translated as &quot;example-explanation-sayings&quot;(Bao Huinan &amp; Bao Ang, 2000, 64). In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into &quot;enigmatic folk similes&quot; in his book A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu. According to professor Luo, &quot;Similes&quot; refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). &quot;Folk&quot; indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. &quot;Enigmatic&quot; indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, &quot;enigmatic Folk Similes&quot; basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu.(Qi Dehui, 2011)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br /> <br /> ====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br /> Xiehouyu belongs to the part of Chinese idioms. It is a common cultural and communicative phenomenon. Its emergence is related to specific cultural, historical, philosophical, psychological and social reasons, and its generation and development is the result of the development of diachronic language.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization.(Liu Na, 2016,18)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br /> There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br /> <br /> For example, <br /> （1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br /> The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132). In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context.<br /> <br /> For example,<br /> (2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br /> In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.<br /> <br /> (3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br /> In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. 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[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112027 2020-12-14T06:09:25Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. 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[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112022 2020-12-14T06:07:37Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 摘要 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. 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[Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. 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Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112018 2020-12-14T06:06:29Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> 西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br /> *Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br /> *Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br /> *Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br /> *Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br /> *Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br /> *Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br /> *Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br /> *Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br /> *Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br /> *Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br /> *Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br /> *Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. http://baik.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112014 2020-12-14T06:05:40Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 1. Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> <br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112013 2020-12-14T06:04:57Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> <br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> <br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112012 2020-12-14T06:03:38Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 4.Conclusion */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> <br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> <br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112011 2020-12-14T06:02:09Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 3.The methods of brand name translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> <br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> <br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> <br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> <br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112009 2020-12-14T05:59:57Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. <br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> <br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> <br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> <br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> <br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> <br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112008 2020-12-14T05:57:41Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.5.2 Beauty in Sound */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP&quot;(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. <br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112007 2020-12-14T05:56:45Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai &quot;云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓&quot;, which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. <br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112005 2020-12-14T05:55:17Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* 2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —&quot;马尔波罗&quot;—&quot;万宝路&quot;、Mercedes-Benz (car) —&quot;默赛德斯·本茨&quot;—&quot;奔驰&quot;. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai(云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓), which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. <br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=112002 2020-12-14T05:51:45Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —马尔波罗—万宝路、Mercedes-Benz (car) —默赛德斯·本茨—奔驰. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference====<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai(云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓), which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> =====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. <br /> <br /> =====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Literal Translation====<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation====<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Non-translation====<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. <br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=111996 2020-12-14T05:45:41Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ===1.1 Brand and Its Name===<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Brand Name Translation===<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture===<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words===<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —马尔波罗—万宝路、Mercedes-Benz (car) —默赛德斯·本茨—奔驰. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities===<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ===2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’aesthetic preference===<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai(云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓), which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ===2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”===<br /> Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot; for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru,2018,1). However, the standard also applies to brand name translation.<br /> <br /> ===2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense===<br /> Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods.<br /> <br /> ===2.5.2 Beauty in Sound===<br /> The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin (Zhang Wenfei,2020,3). This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. <br /> <br /> ===2.5.3 Beauty in Form===<br /> Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3). <br /> <br /> ===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Transliteration===<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. <br /> Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”(Fade Wang,2012,2), which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called &quot;Quick&quot;, is translated to &quot;Kuai Ke&quot; in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), &quot;Puma&quot;(Biao Ma), &quot;Parker&quot;(Pai Ke), &quot;Lincoln&quot;（Lin Ken), &quot;Canon&quot; (Jia Neng)(Jing Yang,2018,4). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly.<br /> It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means &quot;spell&quot; and yin means &quot;sound&quot;. In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”(Fade Wang, 2012, 3). The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Literal Translation===<br /> The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. <br /> A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand &quot;Dynasty&quot; as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4). Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛” (Zhang Shu,2018,4), all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods.<br /> In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock) (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Free translation===<br /> When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation” (Lu Wenchan,2018,4), namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. <br /> Here are some instances such as &quot;Rejoice&quot;, its translation is &quot;Piao Rou&quot;. Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect (Jing Yang, 2018, 4). The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵).<br /> However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name(Fade Wang, 2012, 4). <br /> <br /> ===3.4 Combinative Translation===<br /> Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br /> “Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure (Fade Wang,2012,4). The &quot;Goldlion&quot; is translated into &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, which is a good translation. As we all know, &quot;lion&quot; means &quot;Shi Zi&quot;&quot; in Chinese, but the pronunciation of &quot;Lion&quot; is similar to the Chinese &quot;Shi&quot;, and &quot;Shi&quot; means &quot;Lose&quot; in Chinese, then the businessmen will think &quot;lose&quot; unlucky. When it is translated as &quot;Jin Li Lai&quot;, it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly (Jing Yang, 2018, 5). Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on.<br /> <br /> ===3.5 Non-translation===<br /> Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br /> On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the &quot;999&quot;medicines, &quot;IBM&quot; computers, &quot;TCL&quot; electronic products, &quot;LG&quot; Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on (Zhang Jin,2019,2). Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. <br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages. <br /> From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br /> First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;, product sales will increase.<br /> Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br /> Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br /> [2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of &quot;Three Beauty&quot; in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br /> [3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br /> [4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br /> [6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br /> [7]Wang Hengen. &quot;Three Beauty&quot; theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br /> [8]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br /> [9]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br /> [10]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> *Rexroth, K. &amp; Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br /> <br /> *付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> * 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br /> <br /> *郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> *李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's &quot;Our Country and Our People&quot;]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br /> <br /> * 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[D].衡阳:南华大学.<br /> <br /> *王仲闻. (2019) 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. 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(2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. Shanghai：上海外国语大学[Shanghai Foreign Studies University].<br /> *Zhang Qiang 张强.(2017).湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[The Names of Hunan Cuisine and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language].Changsha：湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University].<br /> * Zhang Yanpin, Zhang Weipin 张艳萍,张伟平.(2016). 基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究.[A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes].南华大学学报[Journal of Nanhua University](1):119-122.<br /> *Zhang Yang 张扬.(2016).中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].英语广场[English Square](6):47-48.<br /> *Zhang Zhizhong 张智中.(2005).兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见.[A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example].语言与翻译[Language and translation](2):44-48.</div>

Tan Xinjie https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=111987 2020-12-14T05:34:26Z

<p>Tan Xinjie: /* The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化；异化；功能派理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br /> <br /> In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br /> <br /> Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br /> <br /> To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&amp;Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br /> <br /> While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br /> <br /> The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br /> <br /> According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &amp;Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br /> Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br /> The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br /> <br /> There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br /> 1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br /> “A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br /> “There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br /> 2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br /> “Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br /> “I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br /> 3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br /> Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br /> “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br /> <br /> It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br /> Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br /> <br /> As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br /> In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.<br /> These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br /> Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br /> 余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br /> Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> 惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br /> Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br /> 其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br /> Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br /> <br /> The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are not uncommon in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.<br /> <br /> ====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br /> Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br /> The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br /> Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) This functions well in the translation of documental texts. The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br /> Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion, etc.<br /> Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br /> From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br /> In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> 1.Bassnett, Susan&amp;Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> 2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br /> <br /> 3.Nida, E. A.&amp;Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> 4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br /> <br /> 5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> 6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br /> <br /> 7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br /> <br /> 8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&amp;Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br /> <br /> 9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> 10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br /> <br /> 11.Yang, Xianyi&amp;Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> 12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br /> <br /> 13.Cao Xueqin&amp;Gao E曹雪芹&amp;高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> 14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> 15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> 16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br /> <br /> 17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> 18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br /> <br /> 19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos TheorY 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br /> Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论，归化，异化<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge communicating between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br /> In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br /> The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br /> According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br /> ====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br /> The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br /> <br /> In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, &quot;Skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced &quot;message transmitter&quot; that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br /> <br /> In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br /> The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word &quot;skopos&quot;: the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, &quot;skopos&quot; referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br /> ====2.1 Domestication====<br /> Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator &quot;leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him&quot; and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br /> <br /> Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004:59)<br /> <br /> Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br /> <br /> Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br /> <br /> In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Foreignization====<br /> Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign.&quot;(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br /> <br /> <br /> The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's &quot;Deconstruction&quot; philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The &quot;heterogeneity&quot; of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of &quot;translation autonomy&quot; and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of &quot;artistic autonomy&quot; in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br /> Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its &quot;social identity&quot;. XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br /> ====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br /> If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br /> The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang，2009:36)<br /> <br /> <br /> “The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word &quot;turret&quot; originates from the Latin word &quot;turris&quot;, which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are &quot;Chinese hamburger&quot; and &quot;Chinese sandwich&quot;, because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese &quot;meat burger&quot; or &quot;meat sandwich&quot;, and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br /> For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br /> <br /> <br /> “凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br /> The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested.&quot; <br /> (Jiang &amp; Jiang, 2009:48)<br /> <br /> <br /> During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br /> <br /> *Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharine. &amp;Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br /> <br /> *Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Schuttleworth, Mark. &amp; Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br /> <br /> *Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br /> <br /> *Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Jiang Xin&amp;Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br /> <br /> *Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> <br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home (Venuti 2009, 20).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida &amp; Taber 2004, 24). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (Venuti 2009, 20). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016, 147). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> <br /> In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation (Venuti 2009, 42). In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects(Venuti 2009, 35). In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Venuti 2009, 17). Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 169-170).<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br /> There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth &amp; Moira 2005, 84).<br /> <br /> As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br /> <br /> Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and language style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language countries. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites (Lu 2018, 57). With the increasing frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The type of the text==== <br /> Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br /> <br /> Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay (Newmark 2001, 39). Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses. Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading (Wang 2008, 138). The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text.<br /> <br /> Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form (Newmark 2001, 40). This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information. These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br /> <br /> Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center (Newmark 2001, 41). Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader (Wang 2008, 139). It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information; therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible.<br /> <br /> According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. Domestication and foreignization are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, the translator should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, the translator should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, the translator has freedom so the translator should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. The translator can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br /> The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br /> <br /> The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text. However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang &amp; Wang 2007, 147).<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br /> In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br /> Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br /> Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br /> <br /> Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city” which shows its cultural meaning. <br /> <br /> In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in the source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note when using. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language(Fang 2011,104). For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in the source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br /> <br /> Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br /> Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br /> <br /> Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language (Fang 2011, 104). With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people. For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings.<br /> <br /> However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation (Wang 2014, 98). Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand. For example, the sentence “Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday” is translated as “如今他便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五（星期五Friday是《鲁滨逊漂流记》中Robinson Crusoe的忠实奴仆）” . By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge.<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning (Fang 2011, 105). In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms. For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration(Fang 2011, 105), so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission. For example, the sentence “Like a son of Bacchus, he can drink up two battles of whisky at a breath” is translated as “他简直像巴克斯（巴克斯是古希腊神话中的酒神）的儿子，能一口气喝光两瓶威士忌”. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br /> <br /> On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion=== <br /> Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br /> <br /> Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br /> <br /> Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br /> *Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br /> *Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Nida, E.A. &amp; Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> *Shuttleworth, M. &amp; Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> *Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br /> *Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br /> *Zhang Siyong &amp;Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical saying) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== <br /> Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Allegorical saying is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a unique structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese allegorical saying is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles.<br /> <br /> However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. Moreover, it is hard to reproduce the language style of Chinese allegorical saying and convey its rich cultural connotation. At the same time, the translation of allegorical saying helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are important strategies in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating allegorical sayings will correctly and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. This paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies. This paper has analyzed the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and attempts to summary the types and composition of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 An Overview of Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Composition of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Types of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Historical Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.&lt;/center&gt;--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In Chinese idioms, the translation of Chinese historical idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of the definition, characteristics and translation strategies of Chinese historical idioms in the first part, and then will introduce domestication and foreignization. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese historical idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese historical idioms. <br /> <br /> The study of the translation of Chinese historical idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of the dualism of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese historical idiom; Translation; Domestication; Foreignization<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅析中国历史典故习语翻译的归化异化<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在汉语习语中，有关中国历史典故的习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先从含义、特点以及翻译策略方面对中国历史典故习语进行了介绍，紧接着在第二部分介绍归化异化两种策略，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在中国历史典故习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译中国关于历史典故的习语。<br /> <br /> 对中国历史典故习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译二元论的研究与发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国历史典故习语；翻译；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 Introduction===<br /> Language is just like a long river which remains a reflection of an age, a people or a region, which means it contains thousands of tributaries. And as one of these tributaries, idioms are exactly a significant type of expressions in language. In particular, Chinese and English are two languages of a long history and conclude lots of idioms. Due to differences in geography, history, religion, custom and so on, idioms in Chinese and English carry forward with distinct national culture and cultural information, which has a close connection with their cultural traditions. This paper mainly talks about Chinese historical idioms. There are so many idioms about Chinese historical allusions with simple structures and profound meanings. These idioms are not supposed to be understood or translated just from their words. Instead, there are so many cultural factors hiding behind them. An important part of history and culture is embodied in Chinese historical allusions and fable stories. They have a strong national color and distinctive cultural personality, and contain abundant historical and cultural information, which can reflect different historical and cultural characteristics at most. Therefore, the translation of Chinese historical idioms is not just a code-switching between different languages, it is the exchange and transmission of various cultural information between different languages. Although the history and culture of each nation are very different, there are many similarities in people’s perceptions of the world. The human language and culture can reflect a common deep-seated “human commonality” as a whole. Due to cognitive reasons, many Chinese and English languages have similar meanings and forms, which fully reflects the similarities between different cultures in the human family. In this case, we can try to translate idioms in two translation strategies which can make the translation interesting and impressive, and give the reader a feeling of beauty.<br /> <br /> The domestication translation strategy emphasizes the easy-to-understand characteristic in practice and tries to avoid ambiguous sentences or polysemy sentences. Therefore, when there is a cultural gap between the original text and the translation due to cultural differences, we need to process the language until the equivalent words are not found in the translated language, and turn them into cultural images that the readers are familiar with. Cultural differences between different languages require translators to maintain a high degree of cultural awareness in the translation process, because it is difficult to accurately reproduce the meaning of the original language in the translated language, which generally occurs in the original language and the translated language among the types of words. In this aspect of mitigating language and cultural contradictions, the domestication translation strategy has played a positive role. It effectively replaces the cultural and linguistic differences in the original text, making it easy for target readers to appreciate the content of the original text. Nevertheless, the purpose of translation is not to gradually eliminate the differences between cultures, but to reflect cultural differences as much as possible in translation. The foreignization translation strategy can greatly enhance the reader’s awareness of intercultural communication, and make them realize the difference between different cultures, thus creating a strong interest in the culture of the translated language. The translation method of foreignization has been welcomed by foreign friends who have a strong interest in Chinese traditional culture. Therefore, the foreignization translation strategy helps a country to promote its own traditional culture and to expand its international influence.<br /> <br /> We cannot treat the two translations of foreignization and domestication as a completely opposite set of concepts. Instead, they can work together to make the translation perfect. Both foreignization and domestication strategies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they differ in their respective scope of application. In the translation of Chinese historical idioms, the translator must adopt a combination of foreignization and domestication, and analyze the specific situation and deal with it flexibly. Over-emphasizing any one of this two translation strategies can impair the readability of the translation. Therefore, foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies, and we need to use these two translation strategies reasonably to make the translation considerably readable.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter2 Chinese Historical Idioms===<br /> Idioms are fixed expressions, so they are also called set phrases, whose true meaning are often different from each of their component words. Chinese idioms usually conclude proverbs, colloquialisms, allusions, familiar sayings, aphorisms, slang, etc. They are the essence of language and the treasure of culture. Chinese historical idioms, a relatively special linguistic group in Chinese idioms, carry the unique culture of Chinese nation and are closely related to the Chinese cultural traditions. They are idioms with historical allusions and usually possess implied metaphorical meanings. Behind the allusions of Chinese historical idioms, there is a profound Chinese traditional culture, which contains the content and meaning of a certain historical background, customs, religious beliefs, geographical location and lifestyle under the baptism of time.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. These two terms originated from a paper that the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher published in 1818. He believes that there are two kinds of translation strategies: one is that “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him&quot;, and the other is that &quot;the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him&quot;. On this basis, the American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti further explained the two concepts in his book Translator's Invisibility in 1995: domestication brings the original author into the translated language, making original language text conform to the cultural values of the translated language; and the foreignizing method brings the reader into the foreign situation, allowing the reader to accept the language and culture of the text in foreign languages. Lawrence Venuti argues that foreignization doesn't bother the author and it lets the reader move closer to the author; and domestication is to break the norm of the translation, to retain the component of the original language, and to let the author approach the reader. <br /> <br /> There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. Lawrence Venuti is a representative of foreignization translation. In order to prevent the formation of translation theory and practice of the strong position of culture of the translated language, he opposed the translation strategy of domestication, and advocated that the translation should reflect the language and culture of the source language and the translated language. Differences exist in the realization of equal cultural exchanges. As far as Nida is concerned, he proposed the concept of functional equivalence, which compares the way the original text is understood and appreciated by the reader with the way the recipient of the translated text understands and appreciates the translation. Basically, it should be the recent natural equivalence of source language information. In order to eliminate language and cultural differences in translation. The problem of foreignization in translation has been valued by most scholars in China. Lu Xun pointed out that the translation must be a bit &quot;foreign&quot;, and there must be an exotic atmosphere. Translation must faithfully convey the original purpose, but also has aesthetic interests. Foreignization and domestication should be two complementary translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ====Domestication====<br /> In the view of Lawrence Venuti, domestication is a target-centered translation, in which the translator translates the content of the original text using the familiar or customary expression of the reader of target language. This translation strategy requires translators to move closer to the target language, uses a smooth and authentic language to translate meanings, and makes the translations easier to understand, so as to enhance the readability of the translation. It is generally believed that the use of domestication strategies is on account of cultural differences. When translators find it difficult to find equivalent expressions to convey the original content, they need to replace the source language culture with the target language culture. For example, &quot;Everybody's business is nobody's business&quot; cannot be translated into Chinese to express the meaning of the original text, the ready-made expression of Chinese can only be applied according to the meaning of this sentence, that is, it can only use existed expression in Chinese being translated as &quot;三个和尚没水喝&quot;. Let's look at the idiom of &quot;胸有成竹&quot;. If this idiom is translated as “There is a bamboo in one's chest”, the meaning of it will be far from that of this idiom in Chinese. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the expression in English &quot;to have a card up one's sleeve&quot; to translate the idiom.<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization is a translation strategy based on the culture of source language. It adopts original expressions which are similar to the author in the translation, tries to maintain the language characteristics of the source language, and retains the feature of foreign culture. Lawrence Venuti described this translation strategy as &quot;the need to deviate from the norms of the national language, and foster a different reading experience, to send readers abroad&quot;. The purpose of using foreignization translation strategy is to reflect cultural differences, to facilitate readers of the target language to deeply understand the foreign culture, and to introduce the culture of the source language and to enrich the culture of the target language. For example, the Trojan horse is translated as &quot;特洛伊木马&quot;. And the sword of Damocles is translated as &quot;悬在达摩克利斯头上的剑&quot;. What's more, &quot;丢面子&quot; in Chinese can be translated using the foreignization strategy as &quot;lose one's face&quot;. Another example is that &quot;以牙还牙&quot; is translated as &quot;eye for eye, tooth for tooth&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Advantages and Disadvantages of Domestication and Foreignization in Idioms'Translation===<br /> ====Advantages of Using Domestication Strategy to Translate Idioms====<br /> Domestication strategy posssesses two advantadges in translating idioms. Firstly, readers of target language are easy to understand the translation. In the practice of idiom translation, translators tend to adopt domestication strategies, mainly considering the differences between different cultures, so that target readers can easily understand the meaning expressed by the idiom and can better understand the meaning of the sentence, paragraph and even the chapter. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;丢了西瓜，捡了芝麻&quot;, if translated directly as &quot;to get the sesame, but lose the watermelon&quot;, then western readers can hardly understand its connotation, so it needs to be treated with domestication strategy, and translated as &quot;Go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow&quot;. Another example is &quot;不入虎穴，焉得虎子&quot;. If you translate it directly according to its meaning of words, it will be like &quot;How can you catch tiger cubs without entering the tiger's lair?&quot; Literally, it is better to adopt a domestication strategy so that this idiom can be translated as &quot;Nothing ventured, nothing had&quot;. The translation of English idioms is the same, such as &quot;as poor as a church mouse&quot; if literally translated as &quot;穷得像教堂里的耗子&quot;, Chinese people cannot link the &quot;mouse in the church&quot; with &quot;poor&quot;, and such translation as &quot;穷得像叫花子一样&quot; or &quot;一贫如洗&quot; is in line with our expression habits. Secondly,domestication translation strategy preserves the specificity and intercommunication of culture. Although different cultures are very different, there are many similarities in the history and culture of the east and west, which means that they have cultural similarities. However, in the context of the same cultural background, each one of them has its own characteristics, that is, the specificity of culture exists. These characteristics are more prominent in Chinese and English idioms, and also provide the possibility to use the domestication strategy for mutual translation. For example, the English idiom &quot;meet one's Waterloo&quot;, this allusion originated from the Battle of Napoleon Waterloo in 1815. The French army's decisive battle against the anti-French coalition forces in the Belgian town of Waterloo, and the anti-French coalition won the final victory, which led to the complete defeat of Napoleon and ended the Napoleonic Empire. In order to preserve the historical and cultural characteristics of the idioms, &quot;一败涂地&quot; in the historical records of Sima Qian can be used to correspond to the idiom. Another example is the Chinese idiom &quot;杀鸡取卵&quot;, which can be translated according to the &quot;to kill goose to get eggs&quot; in Aesop's Fables of the ancient Greek.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, domestication strategy also has two dis The emotional color contained in idioms is easily lost. <br /> <br /> The loss of emotional color in idioms emphasizes the comprehensibility and fluency of the translation, but it is not easy to reflect the emotions and attitudes in the source language, such as the Chinese idiom “狗急跳墙”. Literally its meaning is that a mad dog can jump to the wall. As a matter of fact, it is used as a metaphor for desperately taking extreme actions when it is nowhere to go. If you use the domestication strategy to translate it into English as “Even a worm will turn”. Although the meaning is the same, but you can’t express the emotional color it contains. <br /> <br /> (2)The cultural connotation of idioms is lost. <br /> <br /> The translation translated with the domestication strategy eliminates the linguistic obstacles and takes the cultural value of the target language as the orientation, which conforms to the reader’ s aesthetic psychology and thinking habits and has strong affinity. But such a text loses the ideological and cultural connotations that the original text has to express. For example, “有鼻子有眼” can be translated as “to describe vividly” or “be vivid and dramatic”, which is not much different from the original meaning, but it is difficult to express the cultural context of Chinese idioms. Another example is the English idiom “to laugh one’s head off”, which can be translated as “笑掉大牙” or “大笑不止”, but it is difficult to translate its cultural connotations.<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Historical Idiom Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> 陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592<br /> ==Abstract==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br /> ==摘要==<br /> 电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br /> ==关键词==<br /> 电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br /> ==Chapter1 Introduction==<br /> As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies, and in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice. With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role. In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art==<br /> ==2.1 The Introduction of Movie==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yangshu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(2017).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation.Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts. Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life. The film can accurately &quot;restore&quot; the real world, &quot;show&quot; the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br /> <br /> ==2.2 Features of English Film Title==<br /> On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br /> (1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a &quot;True lie&quot;? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. &quot;Slumdog,&quot; for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles. People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(&quot; Seven Sins &quot;). According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. 0Cean's Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.In addition, Hansu said that:“English movie titles often use nouns. On the one hand, it can be the theme of the film, on the other hand, it can provide the audience with rich imagination space.”（2019）.<br /> These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.<br /> <br /> ==2.3 Functions of English Film Title==<br /> The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of metalanguage. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has the function of information, imperative function and aesthetic function. In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks &quot;should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create&quot;, wants be particular about &quot;mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality&quot;, &quot;to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect&quot;. The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film; 2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember; 3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere; 4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences(5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on &quot;faithfulness to the original author or the original text&quot;, but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.<br /> ==Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation==<br /> With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, &quot;slam-dunk&quot; is called &quot;Thun&quot;, while in Mandarin it is &quot;slam-dunk&quot;. Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into &quot;Thun in Space&quot; and &quot;Slam-Dunk in the Air&quot;. Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of &quot;Titanic&quot; and &quot;Titanic&quot;, but the latter is better known. (3) Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint. The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.(5) Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, &quot;Fair Came&quot; was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as &quot;Fair game&quot;. The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of &quot;Shawshank Redemption&quot;. The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word &quot;stimulus&quot; does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and &quot;letter&quot; to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation, in addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge &quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises &quot;The Sun Also Rises&quot; translation &quot;concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.<br /> ==3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==3.2.1 Ways to Standard==<br /> Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally &quot;go&quot; in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into &quot;to Walk through the Clouds,&quot;, reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style, and to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; with literal translation, but the film's translation of &quot;Gone with the Wind&quot; is more attractive. &quot;Troubled times&quot; tells the background of the story, &quot;Beautiful Woman&quot; points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is &quot;Waterloo Bridge&quot;, see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story &quot;the blue Bridge&quot;, the translator skillfully as a &quot;blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge&quot;, and &quot;candle&quot; two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.<br /> ==3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation==<br /> As for the criteria of translation, yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. Letter &quot;is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside&quot; is for the translation, requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant &quot;, but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements (1998:18). In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate (1998:43). Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message &quot;(Nida, CF King: 1998). BridgeOfMadison Cauntry and YouCai tTake ItW ith Yau respectively translate into &quot;Li Bridge Suicide dream&quot; and &quot;Floating life like dream&quot;, which profoundly reflect the unique artistic conception of Chinese culture.<br /> ==3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation==<br /> Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999:49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested &quot;(1999:48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...&quot; (1999:49). In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as &quot;floating in the sky&quot; and in Taiwan as &quot;truth, goodness and beauty&quot;, which leaves the audience puzzled. Since then, the film has been widely accepted as &quot;the sound of music&quot; by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. &quot;As for culture-specific&quot;, translation theorist Baker(2000:21) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things. This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. &quot;FirstBbod&quot;, for example, is an idiom meaning &quot;first to win a battle&quot;, but always translated as &quot;the first drop of blood&quot;.<br /> ==Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation==<br /> ==4.1 Literal Translation==<br /> literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done xingshenjianbei, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into &quot;A Beautiful Mind&quot;, without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.<br /> ==4.2 Free Translation==<br /> Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called &quot;Face Off&quot;. Some translators have translated it into &quot;Face Off&quot; or &quot;Face Off&quot;. Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into &quot;If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into&quot; cat and mouse game &quot;or&quot; free &quot;, the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.<br /> ==4.3 Transliteration==<br /> Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films. <br /> ==4.4 Amplification and Omission==<br /> Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising. So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.<br /> ==4.5 Naturalization==<br /> Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie CLE-Opatra is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.<br /> ==4.6 Foreignization==<br /> In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture.The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> ==Chapter5 Conclusion==<br /> Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty. Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. &quot;I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October&quot;, I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br />  English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. <br /> <br /> This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.<br /> <br /> This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Film Genres ====<br /> According to He Ying in her article &quot;Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation&quot;, films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&amp;gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, (Tim Dirks,2003) such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> ===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br /> Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br /> In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word &quot;fireworks&quot; is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br /> Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br /> The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.representative of a film, it is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless.to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. (Newmark 2001, 40)In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. <br /> A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br /> Peter Newmark once wrote: This is the language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. Their sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, meter, intonation, stress (Newmark 2001, 42). These rhetorical devices make the form of film title diverse, rich in connotation, expand the meaning of the film space, enhance the aesthetic effect.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br /> A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, &quot;the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee&quot;(Newmark 2001, 41). According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122) Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br /> ====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. &quot;Skopos&quot; means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation (Munday 2016, 73) .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages.<br /> Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence.<br /> Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for &quot;Functional School&quot;: Skopos Theory. situation&quot;. In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br /> Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the<br /> functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ” (Nord1991, 12-13). “ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place ” (Nord 1991, 13). Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.<br /> Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.(Nord 2001, 29)<br /> Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that &quot;a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation&quot;. Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, &quot;inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule.<br /> The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br /> As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why (Nord 2001, 125) ”.<br /> Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br /> All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids sour-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist.<br /> <br /> ====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br /> A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi &amp; Wang Xiaodong，2006）For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film.<br /> Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast &amp; Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br /> Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br /> Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to &quot;a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.&quot;（Nord 2004, 36). The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese . What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br /> Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57） A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.4Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br /> In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br /> The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br /> As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br /> This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''=== <br /> He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br /> <br /> Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br /> <br /> Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&amp;129.<br /> <br /> Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br /> <br /> Zheng Yunqi &amp; WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br /> <br /> Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br /> <br /> He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&amp;Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br /> <br /> Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br /> <br /> Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br /> <br /> ==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> &lt;center&gt;谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> == Abstract==<br /> With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names and discusses several problems existing in the brand name translation. <br /> <br /> ===key words===<br /> Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br /> <br /> ===商标翻译研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述了商标翻译的原则，提供了有用的商标翻译方法，并对商标翻译中存在的几个问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 商标翻译；原则；方法<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”(Lu Wenchan,2018,2), A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. <br /> The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br /> In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, &quot;Three Principles of Beauty&quot;). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br /> <br /> ===1.1 Brand and Its Name===<br /> According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”(Jing Yang,2018,1) Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.<br /> Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008:4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies.” (Lu Wenchan,2018,2) Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise.<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Brand Name Translation===<br /> With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br /> To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br /> The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods.(Fade Wang,2012,3) Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture===<br /> In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as &quot;金&quot;, &quot;美&quot;, &quot;福&quot; and &quot;佳 &quot;(Liu Haiyan,2013,11) In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特).<br /> Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters &quot;dragon&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;magpie&quot;, &quot;petrel&quot; and so on (Liu Haiyan,2020,4), because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means &quot;someone who chatters&quot;, petrel is the symbol of disaster. <br /> People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words===<br /> As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember (Feng Wang,2012,3). Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. <br /> For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &amp;Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. &quot;Hewlett packard&quot; was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”(Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng,2018,2), but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —马尔波罗—万宝路、Mercedes-Benz (car) —默赛德斯·本茨—奔驰. The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to (Zhang Lulu,2011,2). The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities===<br /> Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br /> For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia (Fade Wang, 2012, 2). Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand &quot;维维豆奶&quot; is translated as &quot;Soybean&quot;, in which &quot;Bean&quot; refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Jing Yang,2018,4)<br /> Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang,2012,2).<br /> <br /> ===2.4 The Principle of considering the target consumers’aesthetic preference===<br /> Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, &quot;Lu Hua Nong&quot; serves as a sound transcription of &quot;Revlon&quot;, On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai(云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓), which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: &quot;桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家&quot;, which perfectly implies the good attributes of &quot;home&quot;)(Liu Haiyan,2020,3).<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing 202020080673 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key word===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br /> <br /> I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br /> <br /> O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br /> <br /> Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br /> <br /> (2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br /> <br /> I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br /> <br /> I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br /> <br /> In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br /> <br /> I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br /> <br /> I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br /> <br /> The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br /> <br /> (4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br /> <br /> My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br /> <br /> I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,&amp; Chung Ling,1979:56)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br /> However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br /> <br /> The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br /> <br /> People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br /> <br /> Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> (6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br /> <br /> The Double Ninth comes now again.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br /> <br /> Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br /> <br /> “重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br /> <br /> I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br /> <br /> As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br /> <br /> (8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br /> <br /> You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br /> <br /> The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br /> <br /> Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br /> <br /> ====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> (9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br /> <br /> I look for what I miss;<br /> <br /> I know not what it is.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer.<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br /> <br /> Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br /> <br /> Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br /> <br /> Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth &amp; Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br /> <br /> Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br /> <br /> (10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br /> <br /> A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br /> <br /> —translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br /> <br /> Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br /> <br /> —translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br /> <br /> In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> *Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. 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[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br /> <br /> *张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life====<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> ======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> <br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> <br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> <br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> <br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> <br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> <br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> <br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> <br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> <br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> <br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> <br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> <br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> <br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to Keep “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, “Chineseness” in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating, so that “Chineseness” in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domesticating<br /> <br /> ===汉语习语英译如何保持“中国性”===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words． ( Ammer，1997: vii) (习语是由两个或多个词组成的固定词组，它的意义不同于各个组成词的字面意义。) Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural.<br /> <br /> As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. <br /> <br /> The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping “Chineseness” in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignizing and domesticating translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignizing and domesticating translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignizing and domesticating.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br /> Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or &quot;loss of Chineseness“, in the translation of Chinese colloquial language.<br /> <br /> The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation.The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Importance of Keeping “Chineseness” in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br /> Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of &quot;cultural translation&quot;. Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 The Reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br /> Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of “Chineseness” in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br /> Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word &quot;yellow&quot; are different in English and Chinese cultures.In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, &quot;黄袍加身“（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word &quot;黄&quot; often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: &quot;黄色影片&quot;, &quot;黄色书籍&quot; and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express &quot;timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism&quot; and other derodic meanings. But in English the word &quot;yellow&quot; doesn't have an obscene meaning. Chinese people has regarded the &quot;dragon&quot; as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the &quot;descendant of the dragon&quot;. However, in western culture, &quot;dragon&quot; is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom “望子成龙” was translated into “hope one’s children to become a dragon”, it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into “hope one’s children will have a bright future”, foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word “龙”. This is what we said the loss of “Chineseness”, namely, cultural deficiency.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br /> Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. For instance, the Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐”, which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius.In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain.However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy.A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. From this story comes the idiom. If we just translate “三顾茅庐” into “repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post’ or “have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly”, foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. Likewise, the idioms like “班门弄斧” and “卧薪尝胆” are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br /> As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also influences language expression. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms from Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as “放下屠刀，立地成佛”, “苦海无边，回头是岸”, and “醍醐灌顶”. Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. Take “放下屠刀，立地成佛” as an example. The idiom &quot;放下屠刀&quot;(lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The &quot;butcher's knife&quot; here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence “放下屠刀，立地成佛&quot;(Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of &quot;butcher knife&quot; is &quot;man's confusion to himself&quot;. Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like “A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill.” and “A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good.”; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br /> As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position.The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought, but it has not developed logical reason, among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation===<br /> As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. Domesticating and foreignizing translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domesticating and foreignizing, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignizing method and discusses the way to keep “Chineseness” in idiom translation form Chinese to English. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 A Brief Introduction of Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation====<br /> Foreignizing and Domesticating Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Domesticating translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of &quot;smooth translation&quot; has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called &quot;resistance&quot;. Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. &quot;Resistance&quot; means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. <br /> <br /> Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, “The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text”, in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Application of Domesticating Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> The ideal of Nida's domesticating translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domesticating translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignizing and domesticating method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domesticating method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domesticating under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domesticating under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese.<br /> That is to say, domesticating translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same smantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;时间就是金钱&quot; is translated as &quot;Time is money&quot;, and &quot;事实胜于雄辩&quot; as &quot;Facts speak louder than words&quot;. The other is a loyal premise of domesticating, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, &quot;胆小如鼠&quot; is translated into &quot;as timid as a hare&quot; instead of &quot;as timid as a mouse&quot;. <br /> <br /> Another example of the application of domesticating is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domesticating. For the sentence “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。”( 曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into “ The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky” (Hawkes 242). Here, Hawkes replaced “swan”(天鹅) with “goose”(鹅), since the associative meanings of “swan” and “goose” are completely different in western culture.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Idiom Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. For example, if &quot;一箭双雕&quot; is translated as &quot;kill two hawks with one arrow&quot; instead of &quot;kill two birds with one stone&quot;, the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignizing translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, another example of the application of foreignizing is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’ s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignizing while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for “癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃”(曹雪芹 165), Yang translated it into “A toad hankering for a tatste of swan”. Here, Yang keeps the “Chineseness” in source language through literal translation.<br /> <br /> Choosing domesticating or foreignizing is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping &quot;degree&quot;, or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignizing and domesticating shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domesticating and foreignizing. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignizing. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignizing and domesticating should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domesticating or foreignizing, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignizing in idiom translation, so that the “Chineseness” in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domesticating in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods.<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Domesticating and foreignizing have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignizing or domesticating cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. <br /> <br /> One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignizing strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. However, the foreignizing strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture.<br /> <br /> ===5. References===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”. Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Honeck 1997,12)<br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31) <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76) <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />  <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ===5. References===<br /> *Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br /> *Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br /> *Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br /> *Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br /> *Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br /> *Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br /> *Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br /> *Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br /> *Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br /> *Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br /> *Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br /> *Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br /> *Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br /> *You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br /> *Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br /> [2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br /> [3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br /> [4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br /> [5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br /> [8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br /> [9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br /> [10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br /> [11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br /> [12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br /> [13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br /> [14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br /> [15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br /> [16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br /> [17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br /> [18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br /> [19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> [20] 张健,唐见端. 略谈汉语新词新义的英译[J]. 中国翻译, 1996.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> === Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br /> <br /> === Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br /> <br /> (1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br /> <br /> Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yue Lin 2020,5) <br /> <br /> Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same &quot;with&quot; structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners. The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br /> <br /> After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into &quot;all sorts of food&quot;, the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br /> <br /> (2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br /> <br /> Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as &quot;刀板香&quot;. 片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it &quot;Kuiyuan Hall&quot;. Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. 片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia &amp; Yuelin 2020, 7)<br /> <br /> Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish. In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. 夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br /> <br /> === Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as &quot;the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. In the views of Christian Nord, the translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon. Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing &amp; Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br /> <br /> In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized. Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies. Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br /> <br /> === Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br /> <br /> 4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br /> <br /> It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br /> <br /> 4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br /> <br /> First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness. Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br /> <br /> Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above. One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br /> <br /> Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish. The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken). The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding. As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du &amp; Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br /> <br /> *Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br /> <br /> *Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang &amp; Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br /> <br /> *Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Qing Zhang &amp; Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br /> <br /> *Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br /> <br /> *Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br /> <br /> *车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br /> <br /> *李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br /> <br /> *莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of &quot;re-creation&quot; translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br /> <br /> *屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br /> <br /> *邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br /> <br /> *吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of &quot;Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research&quot;]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br /> <br /> *张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of &quot;China on the Tip of the Tongue&quot; guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role. The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br /> <br /> The major concern of this paper is &quot;The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names&quot;. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.<br /> <br /> Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names.<br /> <br /> ===1.An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br /> Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. <br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.<br /> <br /> According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to &quot;the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language&quot;. This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, &quot;Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.&quot; (Catford 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br /> <br /> First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration.<br /> <br /> Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently.<br /> <br /> Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches &quot;private&quot; meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect.<br /> <br /> Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br /> Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br /> <br /> Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour. The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.<br /> <br /> The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.<br /> <br /> And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name &quot;组庵&quot; and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br /> <br /> A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br /> <br /> Informative Function<br /> <br /> The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br /> <br /> <br /> Aesthetic Function<br /> <br /> If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> Cultural Function<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===2.Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br /> There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of &quot;unity of human and nature&quot; and the traditional Western concept of &quot;humanism&quot;, and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. <br /> <br /> Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br /> Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like &quot;man proposes God disposes&quot;; &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to &quot;man proposes, God disposes&quot;, it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.<br /> <br /> The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br /> <br /> As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take &quot;dog&quot; for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as &quot;love me, love my dog&quot;, &quot;lucky dog&quot; and &quot;every dog has his day&quot;. So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.<br /> <br /> When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator &quot;deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures&quot;(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br /> Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br /> The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br /> Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.<br /> <br /> ====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br /> Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.<br /> <br /> Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means &quot;happiness&quot;. So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of &quot;good news is coming&quot;. But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is &quot;a chatterbox&quot;. (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br /> <br /> ===3.Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br /> The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients， the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br /> <br /> The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of &quot;literal+interpretative translation&quot; can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as &quot;stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming&quot;, etc., make the translation more effective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br /> The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜&quot;, where &quot;炒&quot; is the practice. &quot;生菜&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce &quot; and “花生炖猪蹄&quot;，where“炖&quot; is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on &quot;Ingredient and Main Ingredient&quot; or &quot;Main ingredient and Soup&quot;====<br /> The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as &quot;ingredient+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;main ingredient+with/in+ingredients&quot;. Connected by with or in. e.g.&quot;冬笋腊肉&quot; and &quot;蟹黄海参&quot; can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression &quot;soup+main ingredient&quot;, which is translated as &quot;main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce&quot;. Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual &quot;sauce&quot;. Use &quot;in&quot; if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. &quot;蜜汁白莲&quot; is translated as &quot;Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce&quot;and &quot;茄汁鱼片&quot; is translated as &quot;Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce &quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br /> When the name of a dish is &quot;flavour+main ingredient&quot;, the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in &quot;麻辣牛肉&quot;, &quot;麻辣&quot; is the taste. &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which translates as &quot;Spicy and Hot Beef&quot;and &quot;酸辣&quot; in &quot;酸辣鸡杂&quot; is the flavour, &quot;鸡杂&quot; is the main ingredient and it can be translated as &quot;Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of &quot;seasoning+main ingredient&quot; can use the structure of &quot;main ingredient+with+seasoning&quot;, such as &quot;芥末鸡条&quot; can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as &quot;Cumin Beef&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of &quot;seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient&quot;, which can be translated in English as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning&quot;, e.g. &quot;豆瓣酱烧肥鱼&quot; can be translated as &quot;Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce&quot; and &quot;豆豉蒸排骨&quot; as &quot;Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br /> <br /> ====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br /> The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, &quot;芙蓉鸡片&quot; can be translated as &quot;Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White&quot; and &quot;菊花鱿鱼&quot;as &quot;Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br /> The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of &quot;flavour+shape+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;麻辣&quot; in &quot;麻辣羊肚丝&quot; denotes the flavour. &quot;羊肚&quot; is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as &quot;Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe&quot;. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br /> Chinese Hunan cuisine names &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+shape&quot; can be translated as &quot;cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient&quot;, such as &quot;干煸牛肉丝&quot;. &quot;干煸&quot; is the cooking method, &quot;牛肉&quot; is the main ingredient and &quot;丝&quot; is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as &quot;Dry-fried Shredded Beef&quot;.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br /> <br /> ====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from &quot;Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient&quot; to &quot;Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as &quot;person's name+main ingredient&quot; can be made directly. For example, in &quot;组庵豆腐&quot;, &quot;组庵&quot; is the name of a person and &quot;豆腐&quot; is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as &quot;Zu'an Tofuo&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can be translated as &quot;main ingredient+，+place name+Style&quot; with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, &quot;湖南&quot; in &quot;湖南腊肉&quot; is the name of the place, and &quot;腊肉&quot; is the main ingredient, which is translated as &quot; Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style&quot;, the name of a Hunan dish in the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot; can also be translated into the form of &quot;place name+main ingredient&quot;, e.g. &quot;东安鸡&quot; can be translated as &quot;Dong' an Chicken&quot;.<br /> <br /> The name of a dish can be translated in the form of &quot;cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style&quot;, e.g. &quot;毛氏红烧肉&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. &quot;(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br /> <br /> ====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as &quot;Utensil + Main Ingredient&quot;====<br /> Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br /> Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br /> <br /> This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence. <br /> <br /> Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br /> <br /> A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]. 24-25.<br /> <br /> [2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]. 120-121.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br /> <br /> [6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br /> <br /> [7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br /> <br /> [8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86<br /> <br /> [9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014,84). Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。国内许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，才能继而选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略（熊兵，2014,84）。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。<br /> <br /> ===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。<br /> <br /> ====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。<br /> <br /> ====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br /> The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while &quot;stewed snake and chicken&quot;(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of &quot;more than every year&quot;(年年有余) is fish. &quot;Yu&quot;(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with &quot;fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> 中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。<br /> <br /> To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English.<br /> <br /> 以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。<br /> <br /> ===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (王少飞 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（百度百科）<br /> <br /> “归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006: 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科）<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (张志中, 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.<br /> <br /> 谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005：46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。<br /> <br /> Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings.<br /> <br /> 湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br /> Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼).<br /> <br /> 写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors）。<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br /> There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子).<br /> <br /> 写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br /> slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。<br /> <br /> According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives.<br /> <br /> 根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。<br /> <br /> ====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners.<br /> <br /> 语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br /> “童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish.<br /> <br /> “童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。<br /> <br /> In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> 此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br /> Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡).<br /> <br /> 语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br /> The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿).<br /> <br /> 湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。<br /> <br /> ====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br /> As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names.<br /> <br /> 众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br /> 以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br /> There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. (百度百科) The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance. <br /> <br /> 中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi.<br /> <br /> “湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br /> 带地名和人名的菜名<br /> There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, the Mexican hot chocolate (墨西哥热巧克力) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements &quot;Macedonia&quot;. Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named &quot;Fruit Macedonia&quot;.“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation &quot;Dried tofu, Youxian style&quot; uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County.<br /> <br /> “攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as &quot;sweet pig kidney&quot;, it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> “玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121）<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br /> Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding. For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> 采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> 尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：归化异化.[Domestication and Foreignization].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：湘西土匪鸭.[Xiangxi Wild Ducks].<br /> *Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：姊妹团子.[Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball].<br /> *Zhou Yonghong 周永红.(2008).接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨.[A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].贵州工业大学学报[Journal of Guizhou University of Technology](1):101-102+105. <br /> *Ren Qun 任群.(2015).“文化走出去”背景下的中餐菜名英译问题及对策.[Problems and Measures of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names under the Background of &quot;Culture Going Out&quot;].佳木斯职业学院学报[Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10):430-432.<br /> *Wang Shaofei 王少飞.(2006).文学翻译的异化与优化.[Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation].Beijing:对外经济贸易大学[Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br /> *Xu Jun 许钧.(2009).翻译概论.[Tanslation Theories].Beijing:外语教育与研究出版社.[Foreign language education and Research Press].<br /> *Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014).翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot;Translation Strategies&quot;, &quot;Translation Methods&quot; and &quot;Translation Skills&quot;].中国翻译[Chinese Translation](3):82-88.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2009).湘菜名称英译初探.[A study on the English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names].琼州学院学报[Journal of Qiongzhou University](3):128-129+148.<br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣.(2013).跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究.[A Study on theTranslation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication Theory]. 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Tan Xinjie